It’s time for another big one, that is the country of China, currently the most populous country in the world although since its birth-rate has declined, India is set to take over China as the most populous at some point in the future. China is also the 3rd largest country in the world by total area behind Canada which is 2nd and Russia which is the largest country by area.
China is located in East Asia, it has the longest combined land border in the world and is bordered with 14 other countries, topping it alongside Russia which also borders 14 countries, making them both the countries with the most bordering countries in the world. China is bordered with Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar/Burma, India, Bhutan, Nepal, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Mongolia and North Korea.
China has a long and complex history, so long in-fact that some parts of its history mix with legend and folklore and so it is fairly hard to sum it up in short, but I will try my best. China is said to have been one of the first civilizations, emerging in the Yellow River basin and North China Plain. Dynasties (hereditary monarchical systems) emerged and formed across parts of China, with a focus in the East, these dynasties would expand, unify, fracture and re-unify multiple times during long periods of history, China’s history is marked by the names of the major dynasties, the Xia dynasty is said to be the first one, but it is also shrouded in mythology as well.
When the Qin dynasty reunited core China in the 3rd Century BCE the first Chinese Empire was formed. The Han dynasty that succeeded the Qin saw in technological advancements such as papermaking and inventing the compass and agriculture and medical advancements. The Tang dynasty and following Northern Song period saw in the invention of gunpowder and printing and alongside papermaking and the compass are known as the Four Great Inventions, which are celebrated in the Chinese culture for their significance in history. The new Silk Route that came about from the spread of Tang culture saw China as a popular trading center, bringing traders from as far as Mesopotamia and the Horn of Africa.
Leaping forward to 1912, the final imperial dynasty, the Qing Dynasty, established in 1636 and ruling China from 1644 up until that point was overthrown in the Xinhai Revolution and the Republic of China was established in its place. After this the Qing Dynasty’s army, called the Beiyang Army fractured and the Warlord Era begun where factions of this army and other regional factions fought for control and influence across the mainland, putting a heavy struggle on the Nationalist government who fought back against them in what is called the Northern Expedition which the aim of was to reunite China, during this time Nationalist and Communist fought in a United Front against the Beiyang and other regional factions, but this Nationalist/Communist alliance broke apart, partially due to purging of Communists. Despite this the Northern Expedition was eventually successful but the Chinese Civil War between the Nationalists and Communists would begin.
Worse yet was during this period when the Second Sino-Japanese War begun in 1937 which saw invasion of China and atrocities committed by the Japanese such as the Rape of Nanking and also soon after World War II followed, this at least led to a pause of the Civil War and a 2nd United Front against the Japanese, but after the conclusion of the 2nd World War the civil war soon resumed, this part is often known as the Chinese Communist Revolution, Mao Zedong and the communists eventually won and the People’s Republic of China was established on 1st October 1949 and the nationalist Kuomintang fled to Taiwan and set up the Republic of China there, which eventually transformed into a democracy and is widely unrecognized and strongly disputed by China, including their One-China-Policy.
China has since been denounced for its human rights record such as the killing of dissent, mass censorship, the country being a one-party state and widely undemocratic, disappearing of political opponents and so on. Mao Zedong has widely been seen as someone who allowed millions of his own people to starve to death in famine, due to the flawed implementation of the Great Leap Forward 5-year-plan to turn China from an agrarian nation to an industrialized one, those who spoke out against Zedong’s approach were often purged or made disappeared, other events under Zedong such as the cultural revolution led to further human rights abuse and mass death.
There is much more to the country’s history, much, much more, but that is as simple as I could get it. The country’s official language is Standard Chinese, simply called Mandarin and other recognised languages include Mongolian, Uyghur, Tibetan, Zhuang among a number of others, there are also dozens of ethnic groups in the country, with the main one being the Han. When it comes to religion it is again complex, as there are many regional beliefs and religion, the main worldwide religions, although existing in China, don’t play too big of a part, except of course for Buddhism, known as Han Buddhism in China and alongside Confucianism and Taoism are known as the Three Teachings which have strongly shaped Chinese culture, so the largest religious group in China is Non-religious and Chinese folk religion.
The country’s currency is the Renminibi, often referred to widely in international circles as the Chinese Yuan, Yuan being a unit of the currency, it is one of the world’s major reserve currencies. China’s population, which has slowed in growth in recent history, is estimated to reach 1,394,015,977 by July 2020. The country’s capital is Beijing.
Government Type
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China is a Socialist Republic that is run by a single party, which is the Communist Party of China who is led by the General Secretary who holds all power and authority over the state and government due to the one-party system and who also happens to be the President who is Head of State, the presidency is meant to be ceremonial, but it has been customary for it to be held by the General Secretary, this person is also the Chairman of the Central Military Commission making them the Supreme Commander of China’s armed forces. Note though that the General Secretary and President can be held by two different people and there is nothing that goes against this.
The Premier of China, sometimes informally called China’s Prime Minister, is Head of Government and presides over the State Council. The People’s National Congress is the unicameral legislative assembly of China. There are also local and municipal and provincial People’s Congresses which play major roles in the election of the People’s National Congress, as well as delegations from China’s five autonomous regions and the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau. The People’s Liberation Army also has a delegation and ethnic people’s and overseas Chinese are represented by delegates as well – leading China to have the largest congress in the world.
Although the country is led by a one-party system, the Communist Party of China has allowed some parties to exist, coming under the United Front umbrella, which is led by the Communist Party of China and are as such not opposition, many independents have also been allowed within this. These parties and independents have submitted to and accepted in full, the leading role of the Communist Party of China and have been allowed seats in the National People’s Congress due to their loyalty.
Executive and Party Government
First, we must understand the complexities a One-Party State and the State government can bring, we shall see here that the Communist Party of China has institutions that closely mirror that of the State Government or vice-versa, however you want to view it. So, for example the party has its own complex constitution and its own congress, not to be confused with the state’s own constitution or with the state’s National People’s Congress. The Party has its own Central Military Commission not to be confused with the state’s Central Military Commission but due to similarity in members, they often act closely in unison giving the illusion that they are one organization together.
The Party’s National Congress is considered its highest body during its operation and outside of that the party’s Central Committee is considered the party’s highest organ of authority.
The General Secretary is the leader of the Communist Party of China and who wields the power of the state and government due to the one-party system and due to that the position is often informally called China’s Paramount Leader. We shall refer to this as Head of the One-Party.
The President is Head of State and of which is a ceremonial position that represents China abroad in diplomatic and foreign affairs but the General Secretary and President have been held by one individual customarily and the Chairmen of the Party’s Central Military Commission has been the General Secretary since 1989 excluding transitional periods, as the President is Chairman of the state’s Central Military Commission, the General Secretary is, as long as that position also holds President, Commander-in-chief – BUT, the Party’s own Central Military Commission is seen as having more power than the state’s and so technically the General Secretary would still be Commander-in-Chief even if they weren’t President. The Party’s CMC is overlooked by the Party’s Central Committee, the State CMC is overlooked by the state’s National People’s Congress and its corresponding standing committee. The CMC controls the People’s Liberation Army, People’s Armed Police and the China Militia. At the end of the day it doesn’t really matter as both CMC’s are controlled by the party anyway – cause it’s a one-party state!
The Central Committee of the Communist Party of China is the party’s highest organ of authority when the party’s congress is not in session. It is comprised of top leaders and runs many aspects of the party and nominates and appoints to many positions in the party. The members of the party’s Central Committee are elected to 5-year-terms by meeting of the party’s national congress, the congress chooses among members nominated by the Central Politburo of the Communist Party of China through consultation with its Standing Committee.
The party’s Central Politburo full powers and standing is more unclear, but consists of a group of 25 people, compared to the party’s Central Committee that has 200-odd members. It is known that this party organization oversees the Communist Party of China as well as nominating members of the party’s Central Committee. Its power is centralized to its Standing Committee which includes an even smaller group of members, 11 or less and is in operation when the Politburo is not in session, the party’s constitution states that the party’s General Secretary must be a member. The official stance is that its 25-members are nominated by the party’s Central Committee, although many who study Chinese politics believe that the Politburo and its Standing Committee actually elects itself in closed door sessions and inside polling. It is believed its agenda is led by the General Secretary and that decisions are made through general consensus rather than holding a vote.
Finally, the Secretariat of the Communist Party of China is a body that implements decisions of the Politburo from day to day and must also consult with the Politburo when needed. Its priority is to implement the tasks set out by the Politburo and so is responsible to them – its members are said to be elected by the Party’s Central Committee.
Another of the reasons that state functions and party functions so closely mirror each-other is another trait of the one-party state, if one party controls all aspects of the state, then the state is going to function similar to the party.
The Premier, is the Head of State Government, who presides over the State Council. This person is nominated by the President and is confirmed by the state People’s National Congress.
Due to the size of China there are localized government and provincial and municipal governments with their own congresses as well, all responsible to the national government, which is run by the Communist Party of China.
Powers of the Leaders
So now let’s focus on the leaders.
The President and Head of State – also customarily the General Secretary.
The President in pursuance of the decisions of the state National People’s Congress will promulgate statutes; nominate, appoint and remove the Premier, Vice Premiers, State Councillors, Ministers who are in-charge of ministries or commissions and the Auditor General and Secretary General of the State Council. Confers state medals and titles of honour, issues orders of special pardons, proclaims state of emergency, proclaims a state of war and issues mobilization orders.
In diplomatic and foreign affairs, the President engages in activities of state affairs and receives foreign diplomatic representatives. In pursuance of decisions by the state’s Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, the President appoints and recalls plenipotentiary representatives abroad and ratifies treaties and important agreements concluded with foreign states.
If the President’s office falls vacant then the Vice-president will become the new President, if the Vice-president’s office falls vacant then the state National People’s Congress will elect a new one, if both President and Vice-president positions become vacant, the Chairmen of the Standing Committee of the state’s National People’s Congress will temporarily become interim President until the state’s National People’s Congress elects a new President and Vice-president.
And the Premier, Head of State Government.
The Premier presides over the State Council and is nominated by the President and confirmed by the state’s National People’s Congress.
The State Council is the executive body of the highest organ of state power and administration. The State Councils other members include Vice-Premiers, State Councillors, Ministers in charge of Ministries, Ministers in charge of Commissions, the Auditor-General and the Secretary-General. All members of the State Council have a term of 5-years, the Premier, Vice-Premiers and State Councillors can serve no more than two consecutive terms (10-years).
The State Council adopts administrative measures, enacts administrative rules and issues decisions and orders in accordance with the Constitution and Statutes. The State Council can submit proposals to the state National People’s Congress or its Standing Committee. The council also lays down tasks and responsibilities of the ministries and commissions of the State Council and directs all other administrative work that of a national character that does not fall within the jurisdictions of the ministries and commissions.
The State Council also exercises unified leadership over workings of local organs of state administration at different levels throughout the country and lays down a detailed division of functions and powers between the Central Government and the organs of state administration of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under Central Government.
The State Council draws up and implements a plan for national economic and social development as well as the state budget. Directs and administer economic affairs and urban and rural development. Directs and administers affairs of education, science, public health, culture and family planning. Directs and administer civil affairs, public security, judicial administration, supervision and other related matters. Conducts foreign affairs and concludes treaties and agreements with foreign states. Directs and administers the building of national defence. Also directs and administers affairs concerning nationalities, safeguard of equal rights of minorities and the right of autonomy of the national autonomous areas.
State Council can alter or annul inappropriate orders, directives and regulations issued by ministries or commissions and of those of local organs of state administration at different levels. Approves geographic division of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under Central Government and also to establish a geographic division of autonomous prefectures, counties, autonomous counties and cities. Also decides on the entering of the State of Emergency in parts of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities under the Central Government.
And finally, the State Council decides on the size of administrative organs and, in accordance with the law, to appoint, remove, and train administrative officers, appraise their work and award or punish them. The state’s National People’s Congress can also assign other powers to the State Council.
Legislative State Congress and Party Congress
The National Congress of the Communist Party of China is in theory the party’s highest body and convenes every 5-years. Its members decide on leadership changes and also reviews and can change the Party’s Constitution. Plenary sessions of this Party Congress are also held on a number of occasions between the 5-years of the main meeting, the members of the Party Congress serve 5-year terms and is elected in a similar fashion to the state’s National People’s Congress, with staggered elections involving the Party’s municipal and provincial sections and different levels of the national party.
Then we have the National People’s Congress, the largest Congress in the world, allowing currently a maximum of 3,000 members, it is a unicameral chamber. It is the highest organ of state power. The Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress is its permanent body for when the National People’s Congress is not convened. The National People’s Congress has a whole range of decision-making powers and legislative functions in its hands – its members are made up almost entirely of the Communist Party of China, although there are a few small allied parties and a range of independents who have been allowed to sit in the People’s National Congress under the United Front banner, they are not opposition.
The National People’s Congress elects the Standing Committee every 5-years, including the Chairman, Vice-Chairman and 172 other members elected from among themselves. The Secretary-General is also a member of the Standing Committee. The Standing Committee sets up other Committees for various sections, can also have inquiry committees. Has the legislative initiative to submit bills and proposals. Supervises and questions State Council.
The National People’s Congress meets at least once per-year and is convened by its Standing Committee. The Standing Committee can convene the National People’s Congress whenever it wishes and a proposal of one-fifth of National People’s Congress members can also convene a session.
The National People’s Congress powers include amendment of the country’s constitution, supervision and enforcement of the country’s constitution, enact and amending of basic statutes to do with criminal offenses, civil affairs, state organs and other matters. Also elects the nations President and Vice-President every 5-years or when necessary if before that time. Confirms the President’s nomination of the Premier, also decides on Vice-Premiers and State Councillors, Ministers in charge of Ministries, Ministers in charge of Commissions, the Auditor-General and Secretary-General who are nominated by the Premier, when confirmed the President appoints them.
Decides on the Chairmen of the State’s Central Military Commission (customarily the President) and then confirms nominations of this commission from the Chairman.
The People’s National Congress also elects the President of the Supreme People’s Court and elects the Procurator-General of the Supreme People’s Procuratorate, the People’s National Congress confirms the Justices nominated by the President of the Supreme People’s Court. Examines and approves the national economic and social development plan and the report on its implementation from the State Council.
The National People’s Congress can alter or annul what it deems inappropriate decisions of its Standing Committee. Approves establishment of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities under the Central Government. Also decides on the establishment of Special Administrative Regions and the systems to be instituted there. Decides on questions of war or peace.
The National Congress has the power to recall or remove The President and Vice-President, the Premier, Vice-Premiers, State Councillors, Ministers in charge of Ministries, Ministers in charge of Commissions, the Auditor-General, the Secretary-General, anyone on the state’s Central Military Commission, the President of the Supreme People’s Court and the Procurator-General.
The People’s National Congress adopts statutes and resolutions by a majority vote of more than one half of all members.
Constitutional amendments are proposed by the Standing Committee or by at least one-fifth of the members of the Congress, passage of an amendment requires a two-third vote by members.
Electoral System
The President and Vice-President is elected by the People’s National Congress for a 5-year-term, the term is not limited so the same person can be appointed by the congress as many times as they wish.
To be qualified for the Presidential or Vice-Presidential role one must be a citizen of China who have the right to vote and stand for election and who are at least 45-years or older.
The General Secretary of the Communist Party of China is nominated and appointed by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China for a 5-year-term, also with no term limits.
The Premier is nominated by the President and confirmed by the People’s National Congress for a 5-year-term, one individual is limited to two terms (10-years).
The People’s National Congress members are elected in numerous ways, including by provincial and municipal People’s Congresses and delegations from China’s five autonomous regions, from Hong Kong and Macau, which are Special Administrative Regions. The People’s Liberation Army also elects a number of seats and some seats are reserved for China’s recognized ethnicities and Chinese overseas. A number of members in the People’s National Congress are also from the All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce, under the United Front banner, a group of Communist Party of China allied parties and independents. All members serve 5-year-terms.
Direct election by the people only happens at the lowest Congress levels, Congresses in-turn take part in electing the congress that is higher than them, so for example a number of localized congresses will elect a higher provincial or municipal congress.
Sources
China is a very complex government, party and political system and so cross-research on everything is essential if using this seriously as there is a fairly high possibility I mis-interpreted some things and also other things can easily change. My sources come from the country’s constitution, of which I could not find the latest of and so have cross-checked with references on Wikipedia and the CIA World Factbook China entry.
Next up will be the Colombia’s government system.
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