Egypt is a country found in northeast Africa and is connected to the Middle East, the country is bordered with Libya, Sudan, Israel and the Gaza Strip and has coasts along the Mediterranean Sea facing Turkey, Cyprus and Greece and along the Red Sea facing Saudi Arabia, and part of Egypt also faces Jordan across the Gulf of Aqaba. The capital city Cairo is found close to the Mediterranean Sea coast. The area of Egypt has a long and rich history and is known for its historic ancient landmarks such as the Pyramids and the Great Sphinx.
Egypt’s long history stretches back to ancient times where it is known popularly in modern times as Ancient Egypt and has one of the longest histories of any country in the world and is considered a cradle of civilization and is credited with some of the earliest developments in writing, agriculture, urbanisation, organised religion and central government. The area was an important centre for Christianity, but Islam took prominence from the 7th Century, but a significant minority of Coptic Christians remain in the country.
The area has been ruled by various powers over its history including the Roman and then Byzantine Empire, followed by Islamic caliphates and then from the 16th to 20th Centuries the country was ruled by the Ottoman Empire, where it was largely autonomous, especially during the Mohammad Ali dynasty and then the country became a protectorate of the British Empire after the 1st World War and for a short period Egypt was a Sultanate.
Growing nationalism in Egypt led to a revolution against British control in which Britain granted Egypt independence in 1922 although continued to occupy the country militarily and greatly influence its political affairs. Also, after “independence” the country transformed from a Sultanate into a Kingdom and a new constitution implemented a parliamentary-based system.
Nationalist tensions continued due to British presence and influence and a treaty had British forces withdraw from all of Egypt apart from the Suez Canal. As further strain was put on the Egyptian Monarchy by the nationalist party in government, the treaty ended up failing and an attempt to force British forces out of the Suez Canal took place, leading to a skirmish that killed 43 Egyptian policemen and 3 British soldiers and of which outrages Egypt.
Tensions ended up culminating in a revolution against the Egyptian Monarchy in 1952 with the King abdicating and the Royal Family fleeing the country. A Republic was formed but political parties were banned and authoritarianism and military rule ensued. In 1958 there was a short union with Syria known as the United Arab Republic but it ended in 1962 after Syria seceded.
Flawed democracy as well as humanitarian abuses continued until a revolution in 2011, part of the wider Arab Spring, took hold of the country and led to the overthrow of long-time leader Hosni Mubarak and democratic elections were held, but after the election of Morsi it wasn’t long until crisis renewed again due to concerns of stricter Islamic law from liberal/secular members over the influence of the Muslim Brotherhood and shortly after this Morsi made a move that protected his decrees from challenge which he said was to protect the work of the constituent assembly. Riots, unrest and a military coup ensued.
Al-sisi has been in charge since elections were held again following the Interim period after the coup but certain moves he has made, such as amendments to the constitution to increase term limits, as well as his influence in the military has him viewed as increasingly authoritarian by some foreign observers.
The official language is Arabic and the national language is Egyptian Arabic. The largest religion is Sunni Islam which is also the official state religion. The currency is the Egyptian Pound and the population is estimated to reach 104,124,440 by July 2020.
Government Type
Egypt is a semi-presidential and parliamentary republic with a President who is Head of State and a Prime Minister who is Head of Government. There is also a unicameral parliament called the House of Representatives that makes up legislative government and multiple parties are allowed.
The constitution states that parties formed on the basis of religion, discrimination based on sex, origin, sect or geographic location or any parties hostile to democracy or parties that are secretive or have a military or quasi-military nature are not allowed.
The Executive Government
There is a President who is Head of State as well as head of the executive branch of Government. With this comes a number of powers at the positions disposal.
Vacancy
If the President is temporarily vacant from their position then the Prime Minister will act in their place until they return.
If the President is absent permanently and the House of Representatives agrees then the Speaker of the House of Representatives will become interim leader and a new president is elected within 90 days.
If the House of Representatives happens to be dissolved under a permanent vacancy of the President then the General Assembly of the Supreme Constitutional Court and its chairman will replace the House of Representatives and its Speaker.
The interim President cannot run for office, request an amendment to the constitution, dissolve the House of Representatives or the Government.
Duties
As Head of State the President represents the state in its foreign relations and will conclude treaties as well as ratify them after they have been approved by the House of Representatives, treaties to do with peace and alliance or rights and sovereignty must also be confirmed in a public referendum. Treaties against the constitution or that concede national territory are not allowed.
The President is the Supreme Commander of the countries Armed Forces. The President cannot declare war or send the armed forces outside of the national territory without consultation with the National Defense Council and approval of at least two-thirds of the House of Representatives. If the House is dissolved at the time then instead the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces must be consulted and approval given by the National Defense Council.
The President appoints civil and military personnel and diplomatic representatives and can dismiss them. The President confirms political representatives to foreign countries and organisations.
During grave situations that require it the President after consultation with Cabinet and with the approval of the House of Representatives can declare a State of Emergency to free up emergency powers that may be needed to handle or bring under control such situation. When declared the period does not last longer than three months unless extended by another three months by a two-thirds majority of the House of Representatives. During a State of Emergency the House of Representatives cannot be dissolved.
When the House of Representatives is not in session and urgent measures require the President can issue decrees with the force of law and the House of Representatives can review such stuff and either keep them or retract them when they next form.
The President can call public referendums on issues considered of supreme interest to the public.
The President has the right of pardon and can mitigate sentences after consultation with the Cabinet.
The Executive Branch
The executive branch is made up of the Prime Minister, Prime Minister’s deputies, the ministers and their deputies. The Prime Minister heads the Government and oversees its work and directs its performance.
The President appoints the Prime Minister after parliamentary elections. The Prime Minister shall form government and present a program of policy to the House of Representatives and gain their confidence, failing to do so shall have the President of the Republic replace the Prime Minister with a new one this time by nomination of a party or coalition that holds the plurality of seats. If again the new Prime Minister fails to get the confidence of the parliament then the President of the Republic will dissolve the House of Representatives and call fresh elections.
The President, in consultation with the Prime Minister, chooses the Ministers of Justice, Interior and Defense.
Prime Minister and members of Government must not also hold a seat in the House of Representatives.
The Executive Government has a number of duties to carry out including collaborating with the President of the Republic to set public policy of the state; maintain security of nation, protect rights and interests of the state; direct, coordinate and follow up on work of the ministries; prepare draft laws and decrees; issue administrative decisions; prepare draft general plan of the state; prepare draft annual state budget; contract and grant loans and implement laws.
The President has the power to exempt the executive government from carrying out its tasks if agreed to by the House of Representatives via an absolute majority. The President of the Republic, in consultation with the Prime Minister, can also conduct a Cabinet reshuffle as long as at least one-third of the House of Representatives give approval.
The President can delegate some of his/her powers to the Prime Minister or his/her deputies, Ministers and/or Governors.
The President can call the government to meeting for important matters and will preside over meetings that the President attends.
The President alongside the executive Cabinet sets forth the state’s general policy and will oversee its implementation. The President can convey messages in the House of Representatives.
Presidential Removal
For violating provisions of the constitution, for high treason or any other felony the House of Representatives can bring forth a motion signed by at least a majority of the members of the House to impeach the President, which is confirmed by a two-thirds majority. The President shall be suspended from office and replaced by an assistant while the Prosecutor General investigates the President.
There will be a special court formed that is headed by the President of the Supreme Judicial Council and also includes the most senior deputy of the President of the Supreme Constitutional Court, most senior deputy of the President of the State Council and the two most senior Presidents of the Court of Appeals.
If the President is convicted by the special court then they are removed from office.
The House of Representatives can also withdraw confidence from the President and hold early elections on a causal motion signed by at least a majority of members and then approved by two-thirds majority, such a motion can only be submitted once during a presidential term.
If the above proposal is approved the Prime Minister shall then put it to a public referendum and if approved by a majority the President shall be removed from office and early elections called, if it does not get a majority then the President shall dissolve the House of Representatives call fresh elections.
The Legislative Government
Procedure
The House of Representatives is the unicameral parliament that makes up the legislative government. It is mandated to approve general policy of the state, general plan of economic and social development and also the state budget and is also tasked with overseeing the actions of the executive authority.
The single parliamentary chamber currently has a whopping 596 members, the constitution says that there must be at least 450 members and the President is able to appoint a minority of them. The vast majority are elected members.
In April 2019 a constitutional amendment to implement a 180-seat upper house of parliament called the Senate was approved and also would restrict the members of the House of Representatives to 450 but the changes are yet to be implemented.
The ordinary annual session of the House of Representatives is convoked by the President of the Republic, but even if the President fails to do so it shall meet anyway. The President can only bring the session to a close once the annual state budget has been passed and the closing of the session must be approved by members.
An extraordinary session of the House of Representatives can be called to look into an urgent matter, it can either be called by the President of the Republic or by a request signed by at least 10 members.
In its first regular meeting after parliamentary elections the House of Representatives elects its Speaker and two Deputy Speakers. The Speaker or Deputy Speakers can be removed at the request of one-third of members, confirmed by a vote of two-thirds for violating commitments of their post. Speakers cannot be re-elected for more than two consecutive legislative terms. It is up to the Speaker to maintain internal order by regulating debate and making sure house rules are abided by.
Sessions of the House are open to the public by default but can be closed for a certain agenda at the request of the President of the Republic, Speaker of the House or at least 20 members of the parliament and is decided on by the majority of members.
Legislation and resolutions are adopted by an absolute majority of members, unless requiring a special majority higher than that. Legislation is proposed by the President of the Republic, the Executive Government Cabinet or at least one-tenth of members of the House of Representatives. Bills are scrutinized by a special committee before being submitted to the house, the committee must give a reason if it chooses not to submit a bill to the house.
Bills rejected by the house cannot be reintroduced again in the same legislative term.
The President is able to veto legislation passed by the house that he/she disagrees with and should then be sent back to the house within 30-days where it will be reconsidered, if passed unchanged again by at least a two-thirds majority it will become law.
Prime Minister and other members of Government can attend sessions of parliament or a committee but not vote. If their attendance is requested by the house they are obligated to appear. They must be heard when they request to speak and must answer questions from members.
The President of the Republic cannot dissolve the House of Representatives except when necessary by causal decision and following a public referendum. The House cannot be dissolved for the same reason the previous house was dissolved. If the House is dissolved early then elections must be called by the President of the Republic within 30-days.
Parliament can grant amnesty.
Confidence and Removal
Two-thirds of members can vote to remove an individual member if they have lost trust or status or failed the conditions on which they were elected or violated any duties.
The house in its duty to keep the executive authority in check can withdraw confidence from the Prime Minister or other member of government. This can happen after interpellation and requires it to be requested by at least one-tenth of members and confirmed via an absolute majority. If the Prime Minister loses confidence or if a minister or one of their deputies or a deputy of the Prime Minister loses confidence and the Government before the vote put forth their solidarity to the member then the entire government must resign.
The House of Representatives has the power to form special committees tasked with fact-finding for the examination of a public matter or activities of any administrative department, public agency, public enterprise on a specific issue and will inform the House on its findings where any such action to be taken will be decided by members.
The Electoral System
Parliamentary elections are held every 5-years to elect the members of the House of Representatives. 448 members are elected from single or multi-seat constituencies where candidates require an absolute majority to win, otherwise run-offs are held between the top two candidates won via simple majorities. 120 members are elected from party-lists in multi-seat constituencies using block voting where a party requires an absolute majority of votes to win a swathe of seats, a 2nd round is held between the top two parties if there is no absolute majority attained and this is won by simple majority.
In the party-lists there are quotas that must be met for woman, youth, Christians and workers fair representation. Finally, 28 further members are appointed by the President of the Republic.
Candidates for the House of Representatives must be an Egyptian citizen, enjoying all civil and political rights, hold at least a certificate of basic education and be at least 25-years-old.
Prime Minister is appointed by the President based on who they believe will hold the confidence of the House of Representative’s members.
Note: The Senate that is meant to be implemented will have 120 of its members directly elected and 60 of its members appointed by the President of the Republic.
Presidential elections happen every 6-years and uses a two round system where a candidate requires an absolute majority to win in the 1st round otherwise a 2nd round is held between the top two candidates won by simple majority. One person can serve a max of three consecutive terms (18 years).
Candidates for President must be an Egyptian citizen born to Egyptian parents and at no point could the candidate, parents or spouse have held other citizenship. Must have all civil and political rights and have served in the military service or if not, have been exempt from military service by law. Candidates must be at least 40-years-old.
Sources
The source for this comes from Egypt’s 2014 constitution (constituteproject.org) as well as some updated information on presidential term and its limits and also about the upcoming Senate from the CIA World Factbook Egypt entry as well as information from there on population. This post should then be as accurate as possible but of course there is always the chance I missed something or misinterpreted something and as always, the constitution can be amended and so this post may eventually become outdated and so cross-research is important if using this in a serious capacity.
Amendments to the constitution are proposed by the President of the Republic or by at least one-fifth of members of the House of Representatives. Acceptance of the proposal requires a majority of members and adoption requires two-thirds of members and confirmation by a majority in public referendum.
Next up will be the government system of El Salvador.
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