Ethiopia is a landlocked country found on the African continent in the East in the Horn of Africa region and is bordered with six other countries which are Djibouti, Eritrea, Sudan, South Sudan, Kenya and Somalia. The country’s capital city Addis Ababa is located centrally in the country.
Some of the oldest skeletal remains of humans have been found in the country and is widely considered to have been where modern humans first emigrated from out to the Middle East and beyond. Ethiopia’s history is one of the oldest in Africa and stretches all the way back to the 2nd millennium BC and for most of its history was a monarchy. Oral history says that the monarchy was founded by the Solomonic Dynasty of the Queen of Sheba descended from the Kingdom of Aksum in the region and the first King/Emperor was Menelik I of the Ethiopian Empire.
Ethiopia along with Liberia were the only African nations not to be colonised during the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th-Century. The country was occupied by Italy under Benito Mussolini in 1936 and became Italian Ethiopia apart of Italian East Africa, slavery was abolished during this time and urbanization was increased, the nation was later liberated after World War II.
Ethiopia’s centuries old monarchy would come to an end in 1974 when it was overthrown by the Derg which was a Communist movement backed by the Soviet Union and in 1987 the country became the People’s Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and was ruled by the Derg via military junta for a time. The Derg was later overthrown by a federalist coalition called the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front in 1991 which is the same year the Soviet Union collapsed and the Cold War practically ended, the country’s new official name later became the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, the first multiparty elections were held in 1995 and the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front have continued to maintain power in the country, although is now under the name of the Prosperity Party.
The country’s official language is Amharic and other widely used regional languages include Afar, Harari, Oromo, Tigrinya, Sidama and Somali among others and English is also widely spoken as well. The largest religion is Christianity but there is also a significant population of Muslim’s in the country as well. The country’s currency is called the Birr. The country’s population is over 115,260,000.
Government Type
The country is a federal parliamentary democracy with a President who is Head of State although the position is largely ceremonial with the Prime Minister being seen as the most powerful political figure, being Head of Government and Chief of the Executive.
The legislative government is made up of a bicameral parliament and multiple parties are allowed although the Revolutionary Party has ruled since 1995, now under its current name of the Prosperity Party since December 2019.
Ethiopia is a federation and so the country is divided up into several states with their own state governments, state legislatures, state laws, state judiciary and state constitution although must still meet the federal constitution and not infringe on federal laws. States can be formed at the demand of the peoples concerned and a two-third vote of the Council of the Nation, nationality or people concerned which is presented to the state council which organises a referendum on the matter and is decided by majority, if the peoples voted to become a state then the state council transfers powers to the nation, nationality or people who made the demand.
The federal government is based in Addis Ababa and the city itself is self-governing but has special cooperation with the state of Oromia.
The Executive Government
The President
The President is the Head of State but the position is widely ceremonial with the Prime Minister having the most power. The candidate for President is nominated by the House of Peoples’ Representatives (lower house of parliament) and both the House of Peoples’ Representatives and the House of Federation (upper house of parliament) will hold a joint session to elect the chosen candidate for President, the chosen member if elected will then vacate their seat in parliament.
The President of the Nation’s very limited powers include opening a joint-session of parliament at the commencement of their annual sessions; proclaiming laws and international treaties/agreements passed/ratified by the House of Peoples’ Representatives in accordance with the Constitution; appoints ambassadors and envoys on direction of the Prime Minister; receives credentials of foreign ambassadors and special envoys; awards medals, prizes and gifts; grants high military titles at the direction of the Prime Minister and in accordance with the law; and with accordance to conditions and procedures established by law, grant pardon.
Prime Minister, Council of Ministers and Federal Government
The Prime Minister is Head of Federal Government and the Chief Executive of the country. The country’s federal government is charged with upholding the federal constitution; formulating and implementing policies, strategies and plans of the nation in respect to its economic, social and development matters; establishment and implementation of national standards and basic policy criteria for public sectors such as health, education, science and technology and for the protection and preservation of cultural and historical legacies.
The Federal Government, through the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers also formulates and executes the country’s financial, monetary, and foreign investment policies and strategies; enact laws for usage and conservation of land and other natural resources, historical sites; establishes and administers the national defence and public security forces and federal police forces; administers the National Bank and regulates foreign exchange; formulates and implements foreign policy including negotiation and ratification of international treaties and agreements; responsible for transportation systems that link two or more states and the postal and telecommunication services; levy taxes and collect duties and draw up and administer the federal budget; regulate inter-state and foreign commerce; administer and expand federally funded institutions that provide services to two or more states; if requested by a state administration, will deploy federal defence forces to bring a worsening security situation under control; enact laws covering political parties and elections with respect to constitutional political rights; declare and lift states of emergency; determine and administer all matters relating to immigration, etc.
The highest executive powers are vested in the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers. The Prime Minister and Council of Ministers are responsible to the House of Peoples’ Representatives (lower chamber) and must keep their confidence to remain in power. Members of the Council of Ministers are collectively responsible for their actions. The Prime Minister is elected by the House of Peoples’ Representatives after elections and after formation of largest party or coalition.
The Prime Minister is Chairman of the Council of Ministers, coordinating it and acting as its representatives and the Prime Minister is also Commander-in-Chief of the Country’s national armed forces. The Prime Minister nominates people either from within parliament or out of it for positions on the Council of Ministers and these nominees are confirmed by the House of Peoples’ Representatives. The Prime Minister follows up on and implements laws, policies, directives and other decisions that are adopted by the House of Peoples’ Representatives.
The Prime Minister supervises the implementation of policies, regulations, directives and decisions adopted by the Council of Ministers, the Prime Minister also supervises implementation of foreign policy.
The Prime Minister chooses and submits for approval to the House of Peoples’ Representatives nominations for the posts of Commissioners, President and Vice-President of the Federal Supreme Court (other Federal Judges are chosen by the Prime Minister from candidates selected by the Federal Judicial Administration Council and they will be confirmed by the lower chamber of parliament), and the Auditor-General. The Prime Minister supervises conduct and efficiency of the executive administration and takes corrective measures required. The Prime Minister submits periodic reports to the House of Peoples’ Representatives on work accomplished by the Executive and on its plans and proposals.
The Council of Ministers includes the Prime Minister who chairs it, a Deputy Prime Minister, Ministers and other members determined by law. As said is responsible to the Prime Minister and on all of its decisions to the House of Peoples’ Representatives. The Council of Ministers decide on the organisational structure of ministries and other organs of government as well as coordinating them and providing them leadership. The Council of Ministers drafts laws under its competence and introduces them to the House of Peoples’ Representatives.
The Legislative Government
The legislative government is made up of a bicameral parliament that includes the House of Peoples’ Representatives as the lower chamber and the House of Federation as the upper chamber of the legislative government. Each chamber has certain jobs exclusive to it.
House of Peoples’ Representatives
The House of Peoples’ Representatives may have no more than 550 members (currently has 547 members) and must have at least 20-seats reserved for minority candidates (currently has 22 seats reserved for minorities). Members of the House can lose their seat if they lose the confidence of their electorate. Members of the lower house have immunity unless they are caught flagrantly abusing the law. The lower house is classed as the primary house of the people, the largest party or coalition of parties in this lower house determines control of the Executive Government.
The House of Peoples’ Representatives has power to enact laws such as on the following matters, usage of land and other natural resources and other rivers and lakes crossing the boundaries of national territorial jurisdiction or linking two or more states; inter-state commerce and foreign trade; national transportation such as which links two or more states and also postal and telecommunication services; electoral laws and procedures that abide by constitutional political rights; issues and concerns and legislation on immigration, nationality, passports, exit and entry into the country and the rights of refugees and asylum; uniform standards of measurement and calendar; patents and copyrights; and the possession and bearing of arms.
The lower house also has other duties including, enactment of labour code; enactment of commercial code; enactment of penal code; enactment of civil wars that the House of Federation (upper chamber) sees as necessary to establish and sustain a single economic community; determines the organisation of national defence, public security and national police forces and can carry out investigations and take the necessary measures when these organisations infringe human rights or public security; can declare or confirm executive decree of a declaration of state of emergency; confirm a proclamation of war; approves general economic, social and development policies and enact laws on local currenct, National Bank and foreign exchange; levy taxes and duties and ratify federal budget; ratify international treaties and agreements concluded by the Executive government; confirms appointments of Federal Judges, members of the Council of Ministers, and officials appointed to public offices; establishes the Human Rights Commissions and determines its law, powers and functions; call a joint-sitting of the two chambers over concerns of human rights in a state; has power to call and question the Prime Minister and other Executive officials and to investigate conduct and discharge of the Executive Branch; one-third of members can request a discussion on powers of the Executive Branch and can have powers to take decisions or measures if needed.
The lower house elects a Speaker and Deputy Speaker of which regulates debate and makes sure chamber bylaws are followed. The house establishes standing and ad-hoc committees needed to accomplish work. Meetings of the lower chamber are public unless one-half of members agree to hold a closed session.
The National Election Board’s members are recommended by the Prime Minister and confirmed by the lower house.
Legislation passed by this house goes to the President of the Nation to be signed into law, if the President does not sign a bill into law within 15-days then the bill will automatically enter into law anyway, if no other action has been taken by the President.
The lower house may be dissolved by the Prime Minister before expiry of the term with the consent of members of the lower house, after this takes place the President of the Nation may then invite parties to try and form a new governing coalition within a week, if the dissolution is down to loss of majority of the former governing party/coalition. If the previous party/coalition is unable to continue or a new one cannot be agreed upon then the House will be dissolved and fresh elections called. While the house is dissolved the previous administration acts as caretaker government with very limited powers until the election has concluded and a new government formed.
House of Federation
The House of Federation is the upper chamber of parliament and the country’s federal constitution says that it is composed of representatives of Nations, Nationalities and Peoples and that each of those are represented in the house by at least one member and that each Nation or Nationality shall be represented by an additional member for each one million of its population, currently the House of Federation has 153 members. Members have same immunity as those of the lower house.
Interestingly the upper chamber actually doesn’t vote on or pass legislation or reviews legislation passed by the lower house (which goes straight to the President of the Nation), but is purely in existence to perform its exclusive federal and federal constitutional duties outlined below.
Exclusive powers of the House of Federation include the power to interpret the Constitution; organisation of the Council of Constitutional Inquiry; makes judgement on settling territorial and border disputes and making a final decision between the nation’s states if they themselves were unable to resolve the issue, also finds solutions on other issues and misunderstandings between states; decides on issues relating to rights of Nations, Nationalities and Peoples for self-determination that also includes the right of secession and id done in accordance with the Constitution; promote the equality of the Peoples of Ethiopia and promote and consolidate their unity based on their mutual consent; determines division of revenues from joint Federal and State tax sources and subsidies that the Federal government may provide to the States; determines civil matters which may require enactment of laws by the lower house; power to order Federal Intervention into a state in violation of the constitution or which endangers the constitutional order.
The Council of Constitutional Enquiry includes eleven members which are the President and Vice-President of the Federal Supreme Court who act as the councils President and Vice-President, six legal experts appointed by the President of the Nation that are recommended by the House of Peoples’ Representatives and three people designated from the House of Federations from among its own members.
Permanent and ad-hoc committees are established for functioning of the upper house. A Speaker and Deputy Speaker is elected to regulate debate and make sure house bylaws are followed. Budget of the upper house is approved by the lower house.
The Electoral System
Parliamentary elections happen every 5-years for both chambers. For the lower chamber (House of Peoples’ Representatives), its members are elected from single-seat constituencies/electoral districts using a first-past-the-post system.
For the upper chamber (House of Federation), its members can be elected by the state councils indirectly but a state council can also choose to organise elections for people to directly elect these members.
The Prime Minister is elected by the House of Peoples’ Representatives after its own election has taken place and after the largest party or coalition is determined.
The President of the Nation is elected for a 6-year term, the candidate is chosen by decision of the House of Peoples’ Representatives and there shall then be a joint-session of parliament of both the mentioned lower chamber and the House of Federation (upper chamber), they will then confirm the candidate as President which requires a two-thirds majority. No one can hold office of President for more than two terms.
To vote one must be a citizen of Ethiopia and be at least 18-years-old.
Sources
My sources come from the country’s 1994 constitution (constituteproject.org) and so should be as accurate as possible but of course there is a chance I have misinterpreted something or missed other things and so cross-research is encouraged for those using this seriously, as well as that the constitution can be changed and so this may eventually become outdated.
There are two different processes to amend the constitution depending on what part is being amended. One requires all state councils to approve an amendment by a majority vote, then the House of Peoples’ Representatives will need to approve it by a two-thirds majority and finally the House of Federation also by a two-thirds majority.
The other process requires a joint-sitting of both federal chambers to pass it in a two-thirds majority vote and then for two-thirds of the councils of the member states of the federation to approve it by majority votes.
And with that Ethiopia now concludes the E countries and next we move on to F begining with Fiji’s system of government.
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