Greece is a country located in southeast Europe and is also known as the Hellenic Republic and Hellas. The country is bordered with Turkey, Bulgaria, North Macedonia and Albania. Greece has a long coastline and many islands in the Ionian, Mediterranean, and Aegean Seas. It’s capital city of Athens is found in the country’s Attica Region in Central/Continental Greece.
Greece is seen as the cradle of Western civilization and also from which democracy, Western philosophy, historiography, political science, scientific and mathematical principles, Western drama and the Olympic Games originated from. The country has a long, complex and ancient history as one of the oldest states in Europe.
The history goes as far back as the 8th Century BC where there were various independent Greek city-states across the Mediterranean and Black Sea, these were later united by Phillip II of Macedon in the fourth Century BC, and his son Alexander the Great conquered much of the ancient world from the East of the Mediterranean all the way to India. The height of Greek culture and influence was seen during the Hellenistic Period.
During the 2nd Century BC Greece was annexed by Rome and became an important part of the Roman Empire and once that collapsed it was then an important part of the Byzantine Empire, also called the Eastern Roman Empire, the Greek language and culture was adopted by this Empire. After a long period of time the Empire slowly crumbled due to Ottoman influence and annexations until eventually in the mid-15th Century AD the Empire fully fell to the Ottoman Empire.
From 1821 the Greek War of Independence saw a successful revolution against Ottoman rule and saw Greece emerge as a modern nation state in 1830. Greece then went through an unstable period, starting with a weak constitutional monarchy, dictatorship, Nazi occupation during WW2, then a military coup from 1967 which installed a military junta and led to a crisis which also prompted Turkey to annex part of Cyprus, the crisis led to the collapse of the Monarchy and the junta and the return of democracy in 1975.
Greece today is an important regional economy and is part of NATO and the European Union and it adopted the Euro in 2001.
The official language is Greek and the largest religion is Christian Orthodoxy. The country’s population is over 10,406,000.
Government Type
Greece has a parliamentary representative democratic republic with a President who is Head of State and a Prime Minister who is Head of Government. There is also a Unicameral Parliament called the Hellenic Parliament which makes up the legislative Government, other powers are invested in the Executive Government headed by the Prime Minister. Multiple parties are allowed.
Note that the constitution was amended in 2019 and important changes regarding this post include the separation of the President’s election from the dissolution of Parliament and the Conference of Presidents electing members of independent authorities via a three-fifth majority rather than a four-fifth one. Greek citizens can also now submit up to two legislative proposals to the Greek Parliament for discussion as long as they get at least 500,000 signatures, these bills cannot relate to fiscal, foreign or defense policy.
The Executive Government
The constitution says that the legislative power is exercised by both the President and the Parliament and that Executive powers are exercised by both the President and the Government.
Presidential Absence
If the President is abroad for longer than 10-days, dies, or resigns, is removed from office or is incapable of discharging his duties then the Speaker of the Parliament will temporarily replace him or if the Parliament is dissolved the previous Speaker of the last Parliament, if they cannot, the Cabinet will collectively act as President, the Acting President/Cabinet will have limited presidential powers.
If the President is unable to discharge duties after a period of 30-days, then the Parliament will be mandatorily convoked even if it was dissolved, the Parliament will then decide by a three-fifths majority, if the situation calls for the election of a new President.
Elections for a new President will take place within 10-days if the Parliament votes to elect a new one due to the current being unable to discharge duties, elections will also take place after 10-days due to death, resignation or removal from office.
Presidential Powers/Duties
Most of the President’s Acts/Powers require a counter-signature by the relevant Minister concerned who will be fully responsible for it and if a referendum on a bill the counter-signature is required from the Speaker of the Parliament. Without a counter-signature the President’s acts/powers will have no effect.
Some powers/acts do not require a counter-signature to have effect such as appointment of the Prime Minister, assignment of an exploratory committee under some situations stated in the constitution, dissolution of Parliament, return a bill to Parliament, and staff appointments to the administrative services of the Presidency of the Republic.
The powers and duties of the President include representing the State internationally, making declarations of war, concluding treaties of peace, alliance, economic cooperation and participation in international organizations.
The President appoints the Prime Minister after Parliamentary Elections and appoints and removes members of the Cabinet and Undersecretaries at the direction of the Prime Minister. The President relieves the Cabinet from its duties if they resign, or if they lose the confidence of the Parliament.
The President convokes sessions of Parliament and also extraordinary sessions when he has judged this to be reasonable. The President can only suspend a parliamentary session once either by postponing its commencement or adjourning the session, this cannot go on for longer than 30-days and any further suspensions in the same session must then have consent from parliament.
The President can dissolve Parliament if two successive Governments have resigned or lost the confidence of the Parliament and the composition of the Parliament cannot guarantee governmental stability. The Cabinet can propose the President to dissolve Parliament if they have lost a vote of confidence. New parliamentary elections are organised and held after Parliament is dissolved.
The President promulgates legislation passed by the Parliament within one month, but can choose to send a bill back to Parliament within the time limit, stating the reasons why. If the Bill is passed again by the parliament via an absolute majority then the President must promulgate it.
The President issues the decrees needed for the application of legislation passed by Parliament and promulgated by him.
Extraordinary circumstances allow the President to issue acts of legislative content, upon the proposal of the Cabinet. These acts are submitted to parliament for ratification within 40-days. If the acts are not submitted within the time limits or the Parliament has not ratified them within three months then the acts will cease to have effect.
The President proclaims referendums by decree on crucial national matters following a resolution voted on by an absolute majority of parliament, which has been taken upon proposal by the Cabinet.
Two-fifths of Parliament members can also propose a referendum on a passed bill (excluding fiscal bills) requiring three-fifths of members of parliament to agree, with the referendum then proclaimed by decree of the President. Only a maximum of two proposals to hold a referendum on a bill can be introduced in a single parliamentary term.
The President is also the Commander-in-Chief of the country’s armed forces, exercised through the Government. The President confers ranks on those serving.
The President appoints and dismisses public servants, in accordance with the law.
The President can pardon, commute or reduce sentences on recommendation from the Minister of Justice and after consulting with a council composed of a majority of judges. Consent of Parliament is required to grant pardon to a Minister.
Magistrates are appointed by presidential decree within compliance of the law and specified qualifications.
Prime Minister and Government
The Prime Minister is appointed by the President, who shall be the leader of the party with an absolute majority of seats after Parliamentary elections. If no party does then the leader of the party with a relative majority is given an exploratory committee by the President in order to see if a Government can be formed that enjoys the confidence of the Parliament.
If a Government fails to form then the exploratory committee will be passed down to the 2nd largest party and then the 3rd largest party to try and form a Government with the confidence of Parliament, each having three days. If all this fails then the President will summon all party leaders to confirm if it is impossible to form a Cabinet that enjoys the confidence of Parliament. In this case the President will attempt to form a multi-party Cabinet for the purpose of holding parliamentary elections. If this fails then the President of the Republic shall entrust either the President of the Supreme Administrative Court or the President of the Supreme Civil and Criminal Court or the President of the Court of Audit to try and form a Cabinet as widely accepted as possible for the purpose of dissolving Parliament and holding parliamentary elections.
If the Prime Minister resigns, dies, or is unable to discharge duties due to health reasons, then the President will appoint a person as Prime Minister who is proposed by the party’s parliamentary group of which this party is that of the departing Prime Minister’s, provided they still have an absolute majority of seats, exploratory committees are used once again otherwise.
The inability for the Prime Minister to discharge duties is ascertained by Parliament in a special decision which is taken by an absolute majority, when proposed by the parliamentary group of the Prime Minister’s party. Such a proposal can also be submitted by at least two-fifths of the members of Parliament.
A Deputy Prime Minister acts as Prime Minister during this time or if one has not been appointed then there is an order of precedence among the Ministers of Cabinet.
Ministers and Undersecretaries have the right to attend sessions of Parliament and the right to be heard when requested.
Government and Cabinet
The Cabinet includes the Prime Minister and other Ministers as well as Deputy Prime Ministers and Ministers and Undersecretaries and constitutes Government. It is important for the Prime Minister and Cabinet to keep the confidence of the Parliament to remain in power. After 15-days of the Prime Minister being sworn in the Government must request a motion of Confidence in Parliament.
The Government can request further motions of Confidence or Parliament can hold one themselves. Parliament can also withdraw confidence from individual members of Cabinet via motions of censure, which if adopted will lead to their removal. Both Motion of Confidence or Censure requires an absolute majority.
Members of Cabinet and Undersecretaries are collectively responsible for general Government policy.
The Parliament has the power to investigate and prosecute both current and former members of Cabinet and Undersecretaries, proposed by at least 30-members and adopted by absolute majority for preliminary investigation/hearing and then another absolute majority decision to pursue prosecution. A Special Court is set up as specified in the Constitution to decide on prosecution.
It is the job of the Government to define and direct general policy. The Prime Ministers directs the actions of the Government and of public services in general, for the implementation of Government policy within the framework of laws.
Ministers have various powers defined by law and other Ministers may have powers vested in them by the Prime Minister. Many Ministers are competent to certain sections/departments of Government and decree regulations and general policy within them, within the framework of laws.
Emergency Provisions
A state of siege can be declared in cases of war or mobilization owing to external dangers or an imminent threat against national security, or in the case of an armed coup aiming to overthrow the democratically elected regime. It is proposed by Cabinet and given consent by a resolution of Parliament and is imposed either in all of the state or certain parts. These measures establish extraordinary courts and temporarily suspends certain rights and guarantees, and gives extra powers to authorities to deal with the ongoing emergency/threat.
If Parliament is absent or it is impossible to convoke it on time then the State of Siege comes into effect by Presidential decree at the proposal of the Cabinet and will later be consented to by Parliament when it is able to meet again.
A state of siege lasts up to 15-days and can be extended by 15-days at a time by consent of Parliament. Legislative decrees enacted by the President during the State of Siege are reviewed after its conclusion and are either ended or ratified.
Presidential Removal
The President can be held liable for high treason or intentional violation of the Constitution. The proposal for charges against the President and to impeach him is brought forth by at least one-third of members and requires adoption by a two-thirds majority.
The President will then be suspended from office as a court decides on conviction, if acquitted the President returns to his office and if convicted the President is removed from office and elections held to replace him.
The Legislative Government
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The Hellenic Parliament is the unicameral parliament of Greece and makes up the country’s legislative government, it currently consists of 300 elected members, its member number is specified by statute but cannot be over 300 or below 200 members.
The composition of parliament determines the Prime Minister and ruling party and the composition of the Government Cabinet. The main job of the Parliament is to have legislation introduced to it, to debate and possibly amend legislation and to either pass or reject it. The Parliament also gives confidence to the Prime Minister and his/her Government and gives oversight to its actions. It also votes on the Budget and financial statement of the State and of Parliament.
Introduction of bills is via Parliament itself or from the Government. Certain Bills have to be introduced via certain ways, such as bills on Pensions being introduced by the Finance Minister after opinion from the Court of Audit. Parliament itself cannot introduce money bills or amendments.
The Parliament adopts its own Standing Orders and via following those Standing Orders the Parliament will elect a Speaker and other members of the Presidium from among themselves. The Speaker or a member of the Presidium can be reprimanded at the suggestion of at least 50 members of the Parliament and if accepted they will be removed from their positions.
It is the job of the Speaker to regulate debates and ensure rules of the Parliament are followed. The Speaker and members of the Presidium run the Parliamentary agenda and administrative duties.
The sessions of Parliament are open to the public unless decided otherwise by members of the Parliament.
Parliamentary Committees exist and are set-up by Parliament for the effective running of the Parliament, such as for the examination and processing of Bills. These committees can request Ministers or Undersecretaries to attend them for issues under their competence. Investigative Committees can be set-up by the Parliament at the request of one-fifth of members and adopted by a two-fifths majority or if the investigative committees will focus on matters of foreign policy or national defense then an absolute majority is required, these investigative committees will have special powers to compulsorily summon people and obtain information. The Committees members must match proportional to the composition of Parliament as much as possible.
A Section of Parliament exists and is made up proportional to the Parliament that conducts legislative business during parliamentary recess, although it cannot process and handle legislation under the strict competence of the Parliament in Plenum.
Other Functions
The Parliament also has other authority, such as changing the boundaries of the country, which requires them to give consent via an absolute majority and also allowing foreign military forces to exist, enter, travel over or remain in Greek territory, which the Parliament gives consent to via an absolute majority. Three-fifths majority in the parliament is also needed to ratify international treaties and agreements. Parliament can grant amnesty from political crimes via a three-fifths majority.
Thee Electoral System
Presidential Elections are held every 5-years and the President is elected by the Greek Parliament. The President is elected through vote by roll call in a special sitting of Parliament, a candidate requires a two-third majority to win, if that is not reached then the ballot is repeated after 5-days, if the majority is still not got by any candidate then a 3rd ballot is held after another 5-days, and a candidate will instead only need a three-fifths majority to win, but again if that is not reached the Parliament will be dissolved and fresh elections called.
After a new Parliament is in session another ballot is held, candidates are produced via vote through roll call and one needs a three-fifths majority to win, again if this fails the ballot is repeated after 5-days and a candidate only needs an absolute majority this time, once again if this fails to be reached by any candidate another ballot is held after 5-days between the top two candidates and the winner is by relative majority.
During the above procedure the incumbent President acts as President until a new one is elected, but will have limited powers, such as not being able to dissolve parliament (unless procedure of election demands it), cannot dismiss Cabinet or organise a referendum.
Candidates for President must be a Greek citizen for at least 5-years who has Greek descent from either the father’s or mother’s line and who is at least 40-years-old and has the right to vote in elections.
Tenure of the President is extended during times of war.
Parliamentary elections happen every 4-years or sooner if Parliament is dissolved early for a certain reason. During times of war the term of parliament lasts for the duration. 280 members are elected from multi-seat constituencies and 12 members from a nation-wide multi-seat constituency via an open party-list proportional representation system where parties are guaranteed seats for reaching a certain quota of the vote and finally 8 further members elected from single-seat constituencies using a first-past-the-post system.
Composition of Parliament determines appointed Prime Minister and composition of Government Cabinet.
Candidates for Parliament must be a Greek citizen, with the legal capacity to vote and be at least 25-years old. A number of other restrictions exist related to not being able to hold certain other offices, or serving in the armed forces or security corps, among other disqualifications.
To vote one must be a citizen of Greece and be at least 17-years-old. Voting in elections is compulsory (but not enforced).
Sources
The source for this post comes from Greece’s 1975 Constitution with amendments through to 2008 (constituteproject.org) with mention of the relevant 2019 amendment changes. It remains important to conduct cross-research if using this in a serious capacity as the possibility remains that I may have missed out certain parts and misinterpreted other things and of course the constitution can be amended and so this may eventually become outdated.
Amendments to the constitution are proposed by at least 50-members of Parliament and require a three-fifths majority vote in two separate ballots that are at least 30-days apart, passage and adoption then requires an absolute majority vote by a newly elected Parliament and a “special parliamentary resolution” finalizes its entry into force. Articles of human rights and freedoms and of form of government are unamendable.
Next up will be the government system of Grenada.
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