Monaco, also called the Principality of Monaco, is a city and microstate located in Western Europe, bordered with the southeast of France on the French Riviera with a coast on the Mediterranean Sea. Since Monaco is a city-state, the capital is the city itself. The state is also not far from Italy’s Liguria region.
Ancient European peoples are known to have been in the area of modern-day Monaco at least as far back as 30,000 years ago. The first permanent settlers are believed to have been Ligures who dwelled in mountains and who had emigrated from Genoa in what is today Italy’s Liguria region. The language these peoples spoke are not directly connected to Italian dialect spoken today by the people of Liguria, nor is it to the language that many in Monaco speak today – Monegasque.
Some say that later on early Phoenicians were the first commercial navigators to find refuge at the Port of Monaco and are said to have consecrated the port and the Rock of Monaco in the name of Melquart, a deity that they worshipped. The Rock of Monaco is an important and strategic geographical feature within Monaco that has provided refuge to ancient peoples and also served as a fortification later on. Greeks would later rewrite the early conquests and progress of the Phoenicians as the journeys and labours of Hercules, beginning off a legend.
In the 6th Century BC the Phocaeans, ancient Greek peoples, coming from the colony of Massalia (now Marseille in France), founded the colony of Monoikos, named after Hercules, at what is today Monaco. The peoples believed that Hercules built the ancient path passing through the region from Spain to Italy, as well as the port, with the later Romans also believing this. Altars to Hercules were a common occurrence on this path. It is also believed that a temple to Hercules may have been built on the Rock of Monaco.
The Romans obtained the area following the Gallic Wars, with it known as Monoecus, which had served as a stopping point for Julius Caesar when he was heading to campaign in Greece. The area remained under the Roman Empire, and then Western Roman Empire before the area then came under Flavius Odoacer who had become King of Italy after he deposed the child Emperor Romulus Augustus, regarded as the last Western Roman Emperor before its collapse.
Odoacer eventually lost it to the Ostrogoths in the late 5th Century, after having killed Odoacer. Monaco would then be captured by Emperor Justinian I of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-6th Century, bringing Monaco back under Roman rule for a time. The Byzantines held it until the 7th Century where it was then captured by the Germanic Lombards of the Italian peninsula. The area would pass hands between the Lombards and Franks with raids causing an almost full depopulation of it. Saracens were also expelled from the area in 975, and the area would become populated by people from Liguria in the 11th Century.
The area would eventually come under the Holy Roman Empire and Emperor Henry VI would grant suzerainty of the area to the city of Genoa, and in 1215 the construction of a fortress would begin being built on the Rock of Monaco by a detachment of Genoese Ghibellines, a faction who supported the Holy Roman Emperor over the Pope. They also created a settlement around the rock to support the garrison, and offered land grants and tax exemptions to attract new settlers. The Ghibellines rivaled with the Ghelphs faction who supported the Pope over the Holy Roman Emperor.
Today, the House of Grimaldi rules over the Principality of Monaco, they descended from Otto Canella and took their name from his son Grimaldo. They were an ancient and prominent Genoese family who sided with the Guelphic faction. Civil strife in Genoa between the two factions led to the Grimaldi family taking refuge in Monaco, alongside other Guelphic families such as the Fieschis.
The Rock of Monaco would be seized by Francesco Grimaldi in 1297 marking the beginning of the Grimaldi dynasty, ruling as the first Lord of Monaco under sovereignty of the Republic of Genoa. The territory would be expanded with the Grimaldis acquiring Menton in 1346 and Roquebrune in 1355. 1338 would see ships from Monaco taking part in raids in the English Channel, alongside French and Genoese ships, against English towns, shipping, and islands in the Channel. These ships came back with plunder obtained from the sack of Southampton, which helped grow prosperity in Monaco.
Monaco would eventually become a principality with Honore II becoming the first Prince of Monaco by securing recognition of his independent sovereignty from Spain in 1633, and then from Louis XIII of France via the Treaty of Peronne in 1641. Monaco would later be taken briefly by France in 1793 during the French Revolution and was held by them until the defeat of Napoleon after the Napoleonic Wars, where then the Principality of Monaco was reestablished in 1814, but would be designated as a protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia by the Congress of Vienna in 1815.
This existed until 1860 when the Kingdom of Sardinia ceded the surrounding county of Nice, and also Savoy, to France. This time also saw unrest in the towns of Menton and Roquebrune, which led to them to declare independence as they wished to be annexed by Sardinia and unify with Italy. The continued unrest in these towns led to the Prince of Monaco to cede them to France in return for four million francs, with a loss of 95% of territory that had been held by the Grimaldis, the remaining 5% being what is today Monaco’s modern borders. The Franco-Monegasque Treaty of 1861 confirmed this secession and also secured the independence of the Principality of Monaco.
The Prince of Monaco remained an absolute monarch until the 1910 Monegasque Revolution, a peaceful confrontation that led to the proclamation of a constitution in 1911. Following World War I, limited French protection of Monaco was written into the Treaty of Versailles, which also established that policy in Monaco would be aligned with French political, military, and economic interests. One of the motivations for this was the eventual Monaco Succession Crisis of 1918, as France objected to the possibility of a German national inheriting the principality.
Prince Louis II of Monaco kept himself strongly pro-French, but he also tried to keep Monaco neutral during World War II, and even despite all this he supported the Vichy French regime due to having friendly relations with Marshal Philippe Petain, who he knew as an old army colleague. His indecisiveness was partly the reason for domestic conflict within his principality during this time, as well as a majority of the population being supportive of the Italian Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini, as a majority of the population was of Italian descent.
Fascist Italy would invade and occupy Monaco in 1942, and then after the fall of Fascist Italy the Nazis swept in and occupied it in 1943, they begun deportations of Jewish people living there, many of whom would later be murdered at Nazi concentration camps. Monaco was liberated by the Allies in 1944 as the Nazis went on the retreat.
Today the Principality of Monaco is ruled by Prince Albert II, who succeeded Prince Rainier III in 2005, who himself had succeeded Prince Louis II in 1949. Much of Monaco’s economy is boosted by tourism and recreation. Monaco became a UN member in 1993 and joined the Council of Europe in 2004. It is not formally a part of the European Union, but participates in some of its policies, including EU customs and border controls.
Ethnic groups of Monaco include Monegasques, French, Italians, and Occitans. The official language is French, but other common languages include Italian and Monegasque. The largest religion is Roman Catholic Christianity which is also the official state religion according to the Constitution. The country’s currency is the Euro, used alongside other European states a part of the Eurozone, its close ties with France is the main reason it adopted the currency. Its population is over 39,700.
Government Type
Monaco is a constitutional monarchy; the type of monarchy is a principality with a Prince who is Monarch and as such Head of State and a Head of Government who is the Prime Minister but also called the Minister of State. The legislative government is made up of the unicameral National Council made up of 24-members.
Although Monaco is a democratic state in regards to the National Council and how it can legislatively influence the Minister of State and their governmental administration, the Prince of Monaco still has significant governmental and executive power including the ability to dissolve the National Council at any time for fresh elections. The Minister of State and Government Councillors (Ministers) are also not determined by the outcome of legislative elections, which is quite unique.
Multiple parties are allowed and it seems power can swing from one party to another. As it stands the Primo! Party (centre-right, liberal, populist, and eurosceptic) holds the vast majority of seats since the 2018 election, before that there was a ruling coalition dominated by the Horizon Monaco party (right-wing, socially and fiscally conservative, pro-monarchist, nationalist, economically liberal and eurosceptic party).
So, it appears Monaco is dominated by centrist and right-wing parties. The Euroscepticism that persists in the parties that gain power is perhaps one of the reasons it has not fully joined the European Union yet. Monaco also seems to have a healthy support for the continuance of the monarchy.
Monaco itself also forms a single commune which is administered by a municipality composed of a Mayor and deputies designated by the Communal Council from amongst its own members. The 15 members of the Communal Council are elected every 4-years by the public. Those elected must have nationality for at least 5-years prior to election and be at least 21-years-old.
Members of the Communal Council may also be members of the National Council at the same time and vice-versa.
You will also notice that French nationals have a rather prominent role within Monaco’s political system amongst Monegasque politicians. This is due to a series of cooperative treaties between Monaco and France.
The Monarchy and Executive Government
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Monaco’s monarchy is a principality meaning the ruling monarch and Head of State is a Prince rather than a King. The monarchy is constitutional and hereditary. The constitution says that executive power is exercised by the highest authority of the Prince, which I assume references the Minister of State who is appointed by the Prince.
The constitution also says that legislative power is jointly exercised by the Prince and National Council.
The crown will succeed to the next heir in line either due to death of the reigning Prince or due to their abdication. The next in line is the direct and legitimate issue of the reigning Prince, from the order of their first-born child with priority given to males within the same degree of kinship.
If there is no direct heir, then the succession passes on to brothers and sisters of the Prince and their direct legitimate descendants, starting with the first-born with priority given to males in the same degree of kinship.
If the heir has either died or renounced the throne before succession, then the succession passes on to their own direct legitimate descendants, starting with the first-born with priority given to males in the same degree of kinship.
If there are no persons who meet any of the above criteria, then an heir is appointed by a Crown Council on advice of the Regency Council. During this time the powers of the Prince are temporarily held by the Regency Council. The throne can only be passed to a person who holds Monegasque citizenship.
Procedure of application is set when needed by the House Laws of the Sovereign Family promulgated by Sovereign ordinance.
The Prince can exercise their powers from the age of 18. If the Prince has not reached this age when they succeed to the throne or if they temporarily cannot exercise powers (while over 18) such as due to illness, then organisation and conditions of exercise of the Regency are provided for by the House Laws of the Sovereign Family. Usually, a Regent will rule temporarily or until the Prince is of age.
The Prince take advice on usage of powers and other actions from the Crown Council. The council consists of seven members who are of Monegasque nationality who are appointed by the Prince for a three-year term. Four of the members including the President of the Crown Council are directly appointed by the Prince, and another three are appointed on the suggestion of the National Council (parliament).
The Minister of State, members of the National Council, and Government Councillors cannot be appointed to the Crown Council.
The Crown Council meets at least twice a year. The Prince may also call a meeting of the Crown Council at any time, either on his own initiative or at the request of the President of the Crown Council.
The Prince may choose to consult with the Crown Council on issues regarding Monaco’s higher interests, the Council may offer suggestions to the Prince. The Crown Council must always be consulted by the Prince on international treaties, requests to dissolve the National Council, on naturalization or restoration of nationality, and on pardons and amnesties.
Although the Constitution states that Judicial power is vested in the Prince, it also makes sure to state that the Prince delegates its full exercise to the courts and tribunals, keeping them separate and independent.
There are though concerns over its true independence due to lack of transparency on judge recruitment and the fact that in practice the Judicial Service Commission does not have enforcement power. Half of the judges in Monaco are French nationals while the other half are Monegasque.
Powers and Duties of the Prince
- The Prince represents Monaco in its relations with foreign powers, which includes signing and ratifying treaties and international agreements.
- The Prince signs and ratifies treaties after consulting with the Crown Council (the Crown Council is the Prince’s council for advice and guidance, similar to the Privy Council for the British Monarch). The National Council (parliament) is also acquainted with these treaties by the Minister of State before they are ratified.
- Certain treaties must be consented to by the National Council before they can be ratified. These include those affecting organisation of the Constitution; those that modify existing legal provisions; those that adhere the State to an international organisation which implies the participation of National Council members; and those that result in a budget expenditure pertinent to expenditure type or use not provided for by the Budget Act (State Budget).
- After having consulted with the Crown Council, the Prince exercises their right of pardon and amnesty and also the right of naturalization and restoration of nationality.
- When necessary, the Prince issues ordinances to ensure the enforcement of laws and the implementation of international treaties and conventions.
The Government and Minister of State
The Government is exercised by the Minister of State as Head of Government who is appointed by authority of the Prince to represent him in the executive Government. The Minister of State’s appointment is not determined by the make-up of the National Council but instead is appointed following the Prince’s consultation with the French government, this means a lot of the time they are a French civil servant.
Usually, the Prince appoints the Minister of State from a list of three submitted by the French Government according to the Freedom House 2021 report on Monaco.
The Minister of State is assisted by a Government Council which is the highest executive decision-making body of Government.
The Minister of State oversees executive services, commands the police force, and chairs the Government Council and has a casting vote within that body. The Government Councils other members are called Government Councillors (they are the same as Ministers). Government Councillors are appointed by the Prince, it is likely the Minister of State has some influence in this, those appointed do not have to be members of the National Council, and may include French nationals.
The 2011 make-up of the Government Council included one French civil servant while the others were Monegasque politicians.
Sovereign ordinances (decrees of the Prince) are debated by the Government Council. They are then presented to the Prince with the signature of the Minister of State which also mention the relevant proceedings. They are then signed into law by the Prince.
Certain Sovereign ordinances are excluded from debate and presentation to the Government Council and Minister of State. Those that are excluded are the:
House Laws of the Sovereign Family and these of its members; those that pertain to affairs of the Direction of the Judicial Department; those that pertain to appointment of members of the sovereign household, diplomatic and consular corps, the Minister of State, Government Councillors and assimilated civil servants, and the magistrates in the judiciary; those that pertain to issue of exequatur of consuls; those that dissolve the National Council; and those granting honour titles.
Ministerial decrees are debated by the Government Council and signed by the Minister of State, they also mention the relevant proceedings. These decrees are notified to the Prince within 24-hours of being signed by the Minister of State, they shall become law if the Prince has not voiced opposition towards the decree within 10-days (unless the Prince has already informed the Minister of State he does not intend to oppose, in this case it becomes law as soon as signed by the Minister of State).
A State Council exists which is an advisory council which advises on draft legislation and ordinances submitted by the Prince. It can be consulted on any other draft instrument. Sovereign ordinance determines the organisation and functioning of the State Council. The State Council has 12 members appointed by the Prince after consultation with the Minister of State and Secretary of Justice.
After taking advice of the Crown Council, the Prince may dissolve the National Council for fresh elections. Fresh elections are held within three months after dissolution.
The Minister of State can request or authorize the Communal Council to hold an extraordinary session. The Communal Council may be dissolved for fresh elections via a well-founded Ministerial decree after seeking the opinion of the State Council.
Another of the interesting things about Monaco’s Government is that it is not responsible to the parliament like in almost every other liberal democracy. This means that there is no mechanism for a vote of confidence to remove the Government from power, which only the Prince can do himself.
Other Bodies and Offices
There is a Supreme Court. It is made up of five full members and two substitute members.
One full member and one substitute member are chosen by the National Council and then appointed by the Prince; one full member and one substitute member are chosen by the State Council and then appointed by the Prince; one full member is chosen by the Crown Council and appointed by the Prince; one full member is chosen by the Court of Appeal and is appointed by the Prince; and one member is chosen by the Civil Court of First Instance and appointed by the Prince.
The Prince appoints the President of the Supreme Court from among the five full members.
The Constitution states that if the Prince does not agree with a choice he may require a different choice. No limitations on this are stated, but it could be possible legislation may put certain limits on this power.
The Supreme Court…
- Rules on constitutional and administrative matters as well as on conflicts of interest.
- Rules on compliance of the National Councils rules of procedure with constitutional, and if needed, legislative provisions.
- Rules on appeals on petitions for annulment, petitions to review validity and actions for damages arising from violations of these rights and freedoms prescribed in Chapter III of the Constitution.
- Rules on proceedings for annulment of ultra vires decisions taken by various administrative authorities or Sovereign Ordinances to enforce laws, and the award of related damages.
- Rules on appeals by way of quashing decisions of last resort taken by administrative jurisdictions.
- Rules on appeals for interpretation and petitions to review the validity of decisions of various administrative authorities or Sovereign Ordinances to enforce laws.
The Legislative Government
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The National Council is the unicameral parliament of Monaco. It has 24 members that are elected to it by the people. The Parliament meets on the 11th day following elections and will elect its board, the oldest member chairs this specific meeting. There are two annual ordinary sessions of Parliament, neither can go over three months and are declared closed by the President of the National Council.
The National Council may meet in an extraordinary session that can be called by the Prince or by the demand of at least two-thirds of the members who compel the President of the National Council to call an extraordinary session.
The National Council issues its own rules of procedure that determines its organisation and operation, before they can be enforced these rules must be submitted to the Supreme Court to ensure they abide by the Constitution and if need be, the law.
The National Council sets its own agenda. Its agenda is notified to the Minister of State at least three days beforehand. At the request of the Government, at least one of the two sessions must be devoted to debating bills introduced by the Prince. Agenda of extraordinary sessions convened by the Prince is set out in the convocation.
There is a President and Vice-President of the National Council who are elected by the members of the National Council following legislative elections. The President of the National Council enforces rules and procedures, conducts agenda of the National Council, and represents the National Council in an impartial manner.
The meetings of the National Council are usually public unless a majority of two-thirds of attending members call for a private session.
The Prince communicates with the National Council through messages that are read by the Minister of State. The Minister of State and Government Councillors have reserved seats in the National Council, they must have the floor when they request so.
For laws to be enacted they must have the agreement of both the National Council and the Prince. The Prince, Government, and the National Council itself can introduce law bills. When a law is passed by the National Council it then must be promulgated by the Prince to enter law, the Prince can veto a bill he does not agree with.
Although the Prince has ultimate power to veto or delay assent of a bill (without the possibility of being overridden) this has never so far happened and the Prince has given timely assent to bills passed by the National Council.
Bills introduced by the Government Council must be signed by the Minister of State and then by the Prince. If the Prince endorses the bill then it is introduced to the National Council to be debated, possibly amended, and voted on.
Bills formulated by the National Council are received as draft legislation by the Minister of State, within six months the Minister of State will notify to the National Assembly his/her decision. If the Minister of State decides to turn the proposal into a bill, he/she may possibly amend it, then sign it and then receive endorsement of the bill by the Prince signing it, and it is then introduced to the National Council within a year.
Rather than accept the proposed legislation the Minister of State can instead interrupt the legislative procedure, this is then explained via a declaration on the agenda of one of the ordinary sessions, and that declaration may be followed by a debate.
If the Government fails to notify its decision on draft legislation within 6-months or if it fails to introduce the bill within a year then it automatically becomes a legislative bill.
The National Council has the right to amend legislative bills, although they cannot amend ratification bills or Budget bills. Although the National Council has the right to amend legislative bills, if that bill is a government bill, then the Minister of State has the power to withdraw the particular bill that has been amended before it reaches a final vote.
The National Council passes the Budget Bill for the State after it is introduced by the Government. The national budget comprises all public revenue and public expenditure of the Principality, it expresses the economic and financial policy.
Direct and indirect taxation can only be introduced via a law. Any treaties or international agreements that entail such taxation may only be ratified through the National Council.
If the Budget Bill is not passed before 31st December, funds that are relevant to services voted upon may be opened by sovereign ordinance with the agreement of the National Council. The same can be done for income and expenses resulting from international treaties.
External policy conducted by the Principality is accounted for in an annual report prepared by the Government and notified to the National Council.
The Electoral System
Elections for the National Council take place every 5-years. 16 of the members are elected from multiseat constituencies via simple majority votes, while the other 8 are elected via proportional representation which guarantees seats to parties that reach a certain quota of the vote.
To run for election to the National Council one must meet the conditions to be able to vote in Monaco, be at least 25-years-old, have held Monegasque nationality for at least 5-years prior to the election, and has not been deprived of the right to stand for election for any causes set forth by law.
To vote in elections one must be a Monegasque citizen who is at least 18-years-old and has not been deprived of the right to vote due to any causes set forth by law. Voting is not mandatory.
Sources
My main source for this comes from Monaco’s Constitution of 1962 with amendments through to 2002 (constituteproject.org) and so should be as accurate as possible. Despite this the Constitution seems rather threadbare and it is likely many other things not included are conducted and regulated through legislation.
Remember that I do this as a hobby and I am not an expert. There may be inaccuracies, things I missed, and the Constitution can always be amended again in the future that may eventually make this post outdated.
Further cross-research is recommended from actual academic sources. This post is intended more for those who are curious or have a general interest, but not for those conducting serious research on the subject.
Amendments are proposed by joint-agreement of the Prince and National Council. Adoption requires two-thirds of the members of the National Council.
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Next up will be the government system of Mongolia.