The Government System of Mongolia

Mongolia is a vast but sparsely populated landlocked country located in Asia and bordered between China and Russia. Its western tip is also close to Kazakhstan although they do not share a border. The capital city is UlaanBaatar located in the Tuul River Valley in the central north-east.  

Evidence of humans in the area stretches as far back as 20,000 years in the Paleolithic era, such as the Khoit Tsenkher Cave paintings in Mongolia’s Khovd Province. A number of Neolithic agricultural settlements existed in the area between 5500 and 3500 BC and predated the introduction of horse-riding nomadism, which itself is a big part of Mongolia’s history.  

Evidence of horse-riding nomadism goes as far back as the Copper and Bronze Ages by the Afanasevo Culture between 3500 and 2500 BC, wheeled vehicles belonging to these peoples were also found dating back before 2200 BC. The later Okunev Culture in the 2nd Millenium BC, Andronovo Culture from 2300 to 1000 BC and Karasuk Culture from 1500 to 300 BC saw greater development of pastoral nomadism and metalworking.  

This eventually culminated in the Xiongnu Empire during the Iron Age in 209 BC. This empire was one of the first nomadic confederations in the area, such confederations presented major threats to neighboring powers such as ancient China, who even before the advent of nomadic empires had faced attacks from nomadic groups/tribes who were ruled by Khans coming from the Asian Steppes.  

Xiongnu Empire became such a threat to the Qin Dynasty of China that they were forced to start building the Great Wall of China, one of the great wonders of the world. The wall would continue to see changes, additions, and extensions over the following centuries, with the most popularly well-known sections not being built until the Ming Dynasty from 1368-1644, when the Mongols had been pushed out of China. It would become a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987.  

The Xiongnu Empire would eventually come to an end by 93 BC and be replaced by another nomadic confederation called the Xianbei Empire which lasted until 234 AD. The Rouran Khaganate then existed from 330 to 555 AD where they were defeated by the Gokturks whose own confederation lasted until 745 AD.  

After them came the Uyghur Khaganate who existed until 840 AD where they were defeated by the Kyrgyz. The Khitans came next from 907 AD, who were descendants of the Xianbei Empire, and they ruled the area as the Liao Dynasty (also called the Khitan Empire) until 1125 AD. The last major confederation before the rise of Genghis Khan was the Khamag Mongol who existed until 1206 AD.  

The late 12th Century saw a chieftain called Temujin succeed in uniting the Mongol tribes between Manchuria and the Altai Mountains. In 1206 Temujin took the now world-famous name Genghis Khan and started his brutal and ferocious military campaigns, seeing him quickly moving through most of Asia and was further expanded by his successors into parts of Europe and elsewhere. This was the Mongol Empire, the largest contiguous land empire in history.  

At its height the empire stretched from present-day Poland to Korea and from Siberia to the Gulf of Oman and Vietnam. It took up 22% of the Earth’s total land area and was home to 100 million people which at the time was a quarter of the Earth’s population. The time known as Pax Mongolica, named after the Roman Pax Romana, saw easing of trade and commerce across Asia.  

When Genghis Khan died the empire was subdivided into four Khanates and the Toluid Civil War from 1260 to 1264 would see them become quasi-independent following a power struggle after the death of Mongke Khan.  

After this war one of the Khanates known as the Great Khaanate which included the Mongols homeland (Mongolia) and most of present-day China would become the Yuan Dynasty and was led by a grandson of Genghis Khan called Kublai Khan, whose capital city was based in present-day Beijing.  

The Yuan Dynasty existed for over a century before it was overthrown by the Ming Dynasty in 1368 with the Yuan Court fleeing to the north and forming the Northern Yuan Dynasty. The armies of the Ming Dynasty pursued the Mongols into the north, sacking and destroying their cities along the way including the then Mongol capital of Karakorum.  

The Mongols experienced some wins but were ultimately pushed out of China Proper. The Mongols ruled from their homeland and continued to be known as the Northern Yuan. The Mongol homeland over the next few centuries saw various violent power struggles between different factions of Mongols and also invasions from the Ming Dynasty.  

The Mongol homeland was eventually reunited in the early 16th Century by Dayan Khan and Mandukhai Khatan under the Genghisids. The Northern Yuan Dynasty lasted until 1635 when the Later Jin defeated them, they would go on to found the Qing Dynasty which would extend its rule over inner Mongolia and eventually all the rest of the Mongol homeland.  

Outer Mongolia was allowed relative autonomy and were administered by hereditary Genghisid khanates. The Qing Dynasty forbade mass migration to Outer Mongolia from China and this allowed Mongol culture to survive.  

The Qing dynasty used alliances and intermarriage and military and economic measures to maintain control. They installed loyal officials and divided the territory into fiefdoms. Widespread poverty for nomads became the norm under this system due to usury by Chinese traders, the Mongolia nobility caring more about its loyalty to the Qing, and the collection of imperial taxes in silver instead of animals.  

When the Qing Dynasty came to an end in 1911 following the Xinhai Revolution in China, Bogd Khan, ruler of the Bogd Khaganate, declared Mongolia’s independence from China. The area controlled by Bogd Khan was approximate in size to Outer Mongolia. Bogd Khan argued that Mongolian submission to the Manchu was now invalid following the fall of the Qing dynasty.  

In 1919 Chinese warlord Xu Shuzheng invaded and occupied Mongolia and this led to the Mongolian Revolution. At around the same time the Russian Civil War was going on following the Bolshevik Revolution that had brought an end to the Russian monarchy and empire.  

Forces of the anti-communist White Russian lieutenant General Baron Ungern entered into Mongolia in October 1920 and sided with Mongolian forces to push the Chinese out of Niislel Khuree (modern day UlaanBaatar) by February 1921.  

Although Mongolia was supported by anti-Communist forces from Russia, Bolshevik Russia nonetheless decided to support Mongolia but at the cost of having them implement a Communist Mongolian state, and in this way they could remove the threat of the anticommunist Ungern.  

Bolshevik Russian forces helped Mongolian forces reclaim the rest of Outer Mongolia that was occupied by Chinese troops, and then once again declared its independence, this time as the Mongolian People’s Republic and remained aligned with the Soviet Union as a close ally for the next seven decades, who enabled Mongolia to remain independent in the face of the Republic of China.  

Many of the initial leaders of this new state had Pan-Mongolist political ideals that advocated for Mongol solidarity and a Greater Mongolia that included expansion of the State to include Inner Mongolia and Dzungaria held by China and Buryatia in Russia. Change in global politics (such as the rise of the People’s Republic of China) and Soviet pressure caused a decline in such political ideals, which to this day still have little popular support in Mongolia. The Soviet Union even prevented migration from Buryatia to Mongolia to further prevent potential reunification attempts.  

The establishment of this new State eventually saw Khorloogiin Choibalsan rise to power and introduced livestock collectivization, started removal of Buddhist monasteries, and also performed Stalinist purges, causing numerous monks, intelligentsia, political dissidents and other figures seen as enemies of the revolution to be murdered.  

Some call him the Stalin of Mongolia, of which he was closely aligned with at the time with such similar atrocities taking place in the Soviet Union. Such purges in Mongolia are thought to have murdered over 30,000 people.  

Preceding and during World War 2 Mongolia came under threat from Imperial Japan. The Soviet Union helped the country defend against Imperial Japan during this time. Mongolia also fought against Japan and helped liberate Inner Mongolia from the Japanese.  

As the war neared an end one of the Soviet Union’s stated conditions at the Yalta Conference for its involvement in the war effort on the Pacific Front against Japan was that Outer Mongolia would retain its independence. A further referendum was held on this in October 1945 following the war which had a claimed result of 100% of those who voted being in favour of the independence of Outer Mongolia.  

The eventual People’s Republic of China that came about following the Chinese Civil War saw them and Mongolia give mutual recognition of each other’s territory. The Republic of China (who had fled to Taiwan by this point but at the time was still a member of the UN Security Council) continued to oppose Mongolia’s independence and also vetoed them joining the UN.  

In response the Soviet Union vetoed Mauritania’s joining of the UN. The Soviet Union only agreed to lift its veto against Mauritania and also its threat to use it against other newly independent African nations, in return for Mongolia being allowed entry into the UN. This caused massive pressure on Taiwan who eventually relented under protest, and Mongolia joined the UN alongside Mauritania in 1961.  

The People’s Republic of Mongolia continued to exist until a peaceful revolution in 1990 led to the introduction of a multi-party system as well as the introduction of a market economy, with the movement having been inspired by Soviet economic reforms that took place in the late 1980s. A new constitution was adopted in 1992 where the country became the Republic of Mongolia.  

The ruling Marxist-Leninist People’s Revolutionary Party reorganized itself into a social democracy party called the Mongolian People’s Party which remains dominant today. Mongolia’s first non-Communist President was elected in 1993 and got its first non-Communist party majority in 1996.  

The official language is Mongolian while there are two official scripts, the Mongolian script and the Mongolian Cyrillic Alphabet. The largest religion is Buddhism but there are also a significant number of people who do not adhere to a particular religion. The official currency is the Togrog and its population is over 3,369,930. 

Government Type  

Mongolia is a semi-Presidential Multi-party Representative Parliamentary Democracy. There is a President who is Head of State although has limited powers (even more so following the 2020 constitutional amendment), and a Prime Minister who is Head of Government. The Parliament, the State Great Khural, is a unicameral one and controls the legislative power.  

The two big political parties are the social democratic Mongolia People’s Party and the liberal conservative Democratic Party. The Mongolia People’s Party is the more dominant party, the Democratic Party managed to gain an outright majority in the 1996 election for the first time, but since then has only managed to come to power via coalition (2004 and 2012).  

The Mongolia People’s Party saw its two largest wins in the 2016 and 2020 elections since the 2000 election.  

The Executive Government  

The President is the Head of State and has a number of powers and duties, although their power is limited especially since the latest amendment to the Constitution. The President is supposed to embody the unity of the Mongolian people.  

Temporary and Permanent Absence/Incapacity of the President 

If the President is temporarily absent for whatever reason, then the Speaker of the Parliament will temporarily take up the President’s post until they return. If the absence is permanent for whatever reason, then the Speaker of the Parliament will act as President and a fresh presidential election will take place within 4-months.  

Presidential Powers and Duties 

• The President, with agreement from the Speaker of the Parliament, can dissolve the State Great Hural for fresh elections in the view that it is no longer able to carry out its mandate.  

• The President alone can issue a resolution to dissolve Parliament for fresh elections if the Parliament are unable to agree on the proposal for appointing the Prime Minister within 30-days.  

• Convokes constituent sessions of the Parliament following General Elections, further sessions after this are convened by the elected Speaker of the Parliament.  

• The President can call for an extraordinary session of the Parliament on a particular matter of concern, with agreement from the Speaker of the Parliament.  

• Following parliamentary elections, the President will submit the nominated person (by the largest party, coalition, or majority agreement in Parliament) for Prime Minister to Parliament to be appointed to that position by Parliament.  

• The President can provide guidelines for the Governing Cabinet on issues within its powers and if the President issues a decree to this regard it must be counter-signed by the Prime Minister to have effect.  

• The President represents the State with full authority in foreign relations and concludes international treaties in concurrence with Parliament.  

• Appoints and recalls the heads of plenipotentiary missions of Mongolia to foreign countries, in concurrence with Parliament.  

• The President receives the letters of credence or recall for the heads of plenipotentiary missions of foreign states.  

• The President has the right to grant pardons for crimes.  

• The President decides on matters of acquisition and loss of citizenship of Mongolia, and also on the granting of asylum.  

• The President is the Head of the National Security Council of Mongolia.  

• The President is the Commander-in-Chief of the country’s armed forces.  

• The President confers State titles and highest military ranks, as well as award orders and medals. 

• The President has the power to call for general or partial military conscription.  

• If the Parliament is in recess and extraordinary circumstances so require the President can declare a State of Emergency or War. The Parliament will convene then in an extraordinary session and choose whether to endorse or invalidate it. If Parliament makes no decision on the matter then the decree becomes null and void.  

• The President may brief regarding and submit proposals to Parliament concerning the issues of utmost importance on the national domestic and foreign policies.  

• The President appoints the judges of the courts after presentation by the Judicial Service Commission. He/she does the same for the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court but not for any other Chief Judges.  

Presidential Removal 

The President is accountable for his/her work to the Parliament. The President can be removed from office for breaching the oath of office, violating the Constitution, and abuse of presidential powers.  

The Constitutional Court will decide whether the President should be removed from office, if they decide he is subject to removal then the Parliament will vote on whether to remove the President. Removal requires an overwhelming majority of all members; I can only assume this means an absolute majority but this is not made clear.  

The Prime Minister and Governing Cabinet 

The Prime Minister is the Head of Government. They are nominated by the largest party or coalition, or by the largest grouping in Parliament who have come to an agreement. Once nominated the President then brings this forth to be appointed by a vote of Parliament, requiring an absolute majority vote.  

If the Prime Minister is not chosen and appointed within 30-days then the President has the power to dissolve Parliament for fresh elections.  

The Cabinet is the highest executive decision-making body of the Government. Before the 2020 constitutional amendment the Parliament had a lot of influence and control over the Governing Cabinet, able to have members removed and accept or reject new appointments.  

A large number of members of the Cabinet would also be chosen from among members of Parliament further skewing the balance meaning on many occasions the Parliament was technically just supervising itself. The 2020 amendment made it so only the Prime Minister and no more than 7 other members of Cabinet can be from Parliament, the rest must be from outside of Parliament.  

And the amendment made it so the Prime Minister had full control over removals and appointments of the Cabinet without such being dictated or blocked by the Parliament. The Parliament still has the power to remove its confidence from the Government, causing them to lose power, but they cannot continually change and modify the Cabinet like before.  

These changes have brought Mongolia more in line with other parliamentary democracies.  

It is the job of the Cabinet to enforce laws of the State, and manage the economic, social and cultural system of the State. The Cabinet drafts legislation that it can submit to Parliament for approval and thus be enacted into law. Such activities follow the Government’s drawn up plan and agenda.  

They must also organise and ensure nationwide enforcement of the Constitution. It develops integrated policy on science and technology and sets up guidelines for national economic and social development. It also develops the State Budget, as well as the credit and fiscal plans to be approved by Parliament, and then once approved these decisions are enforced by actions of the Cabinet.  

The Cabinet also develops and implements measures on sectoral, inter-sectoral, and regional development issues. It undertakes measures for environmental protection and the sustainable use and restoration of natural resources. It manages the central organs of the State administration and directs the activity of local administrative organs.  

It works to strengthen the defensive capacity of the country, and ensures national security. It undertakes measures to protect human rights and freedoms, enforce public order, and fight against crime. The Cabinet implements the State’s foreign policy. It concludes and abrogates inter-governmental agreements.  

It also concludes and implements international treaties with concurrence of and after ratification by the Parliament.  

The Prime Minister manages the Cabinet. He/she is held accountable to the Parliament for enforcement of laws. The Cabinet itself is accountable to Parliament and it reports its activities to the Parliament.  

The Prime Minister may resign if they do not believe the Cabinet can exercise its powers. The Cabinet must resign in its entirety if the Prime Minister resign or if at least half of the Cabinet members resign at the same time.  

The Parliament will discuss and decide within 15-days if the Cabinet should be dismissed either after at least one-fourth of the Parliament’s members have initiated this, or if the President has proposed this, or after a related statement by the Prime Minister.  

The Cabinet itself, on direction of the Prime Minister, can submit a draft resolution to Parliament requesting a vote of confidence.  

Resolutions and ordinances issued by the Cabinet must be signed by the Prime Minister and appropriate Minister of concern to have effect.  

Other Bodies  

There is a General Council of Courts (Judicial Service Commission). It has 10 members with non-renewable terms of 4-years. Five of the 10 members are directly elected among judges, the other five are appointed via open nomination. The Chairperson is elected by its members.  

This body… 

• Works for the purpose of ensuring impartiality of judges and independence of the judiciary.  

• Without interfering in judicial proceedings of courts and judges, it discharges duties such as concerns the selection of judges exclusively from amongst lawyers, and to protect their rights, and other matters that provide conditions guaranteeing autonomous functioning of judges.  

There is a Judicial Disciplinary Committee. This is a new constitutional body established by the most recent amendment to the Constitution. Its composition and term are established by law.  

This body… 

• Makes decisions on suspensions and removal of judges and imposition of other disciplinary actions.  

• The body removes disciplinary powers from the Judicial Service Commission and the President, and its nullifies the law empowering the National Security Council, which is headed by the President, to suspend judges and remove chief judges without reason.  

There is a Supreme Court of Mongolia. It is composed of the Chief Justice and Judges; they are appointed by the President after presentation by the Judicial Service Commission. The latest amendment to the Constitution removed Parliament’s role of confirming Supreme Court judges.  

This court… 

• Adjudicates through a first instance procedure the criminal cases and legal disputes assigned under its jurisdiction by law.  

• Examines the decisions of lower-instance courts through a procedure of appeal or cassation.  

• Examines and makes decisions on matters regarding protection of law, human rights, and freedoms prescribed, as transferred from the Constitutional Court or by the Prosecutor General.  

• Issues the official interpretations for correct application of all laws, except for the Constitution.  

• Makes decisions on all other matters assigned by laws.  

There is a Constitutional Tsets (Court) of Mongolia. It is comprised of nine members, three nominated by the Judicial Service Commission, three nominated by the President, and three nominated by the Supreme Court, they are appointed by the Parliament and serve 6-year-terms. A Chairperson is elected from among themselves for 3-years and may not be re-elected to as Chairperson.  

This body… 

• Is the competent organ with powers to exercise supreme supervision over enforcement of the Constitution, makes conclusions on breaches of provisions, decides constitutional disputes, and guarantees strict observance of the Constitution.  

• The Constitutional Court can either act on its own initiative pursuant to the petitions or information from citizens, and/or at the request of either the Parliament, President, Prime Minister, Supreme Court, or Prosecutor General.  

The Legislative Government  

The State Great Hural is the Parliament of Mongolia and it is a unicameral body meaning it is just one chamber. It is fixed constitutionally to have 76 elected members. It is the highest organ of State power, and legislative power is exclusively vested in it. The State Great Hural also supervises the activities of the Government and holds them to account. The State Great Hural grants confidence to the Prime Minister and Government, enabling them to remain in power.   

The Parliament, or any of its Standing Committees, can only be allowed to function if at least a majority of its members are present, forming a quorum.  

The Parliament also supervises and inspects the enforcement of laws and other decisions made by the Parliament itself.  

Legislation can be introduced by the President, the Governing Cabinet, or Parliament members themselves. Citizens and organisations can put forward comments and proposals on draft laws through those who initiate/introduce laws.  

Laws passed by the Parliament are promulgated by the Parliament itself instead of the President. But the President does have the power to veto legislation, either fully or partially, that have been passed, but Parliament can reject the veto via a two-thirds majority vote.  

An extraordinary session of Parliament on a particular matter of concern can be convened by at least one-third of the members of the Parliament, or by the President in agreement with the Speaker. An extraordinary session will automatically convene within 72-hours if the President has proclaimed a State of Emergency or War, to consider this and either approve or block them.  

If at least two-thirds of the members of the Parliament believe that the body can no longer carry out its mandate they can vote in favour of dissolving the Parliament for fresh elections. The President, with agreement of the Speaker of the Parliament, can do the same thing for the same reason.  

There is a Speaker and a number of Vice-Speakers elected to oversee and administer agenda and functions, and keep the order of the Parliament in an impartial manner. The number of Vice-Speakers is determined by the number of parties and/or coalition groups with one elected from each. The Speaker and Vice-Speakers terms are the same as the parliamentary term.  

The Speaker or Vice-Speakers may be removed from their posts before their terms expire, this is regulated by law and not the Constitution.  

The Parliament has numerous exclusive powers. The main one is to enact legislation, and they can also issue amendments to legislation and change legislation. It is the duty of Parliament to determine the basis of the State’s domestic and foreign policies.  

The Parliament determines and changes the structure and composition of the Standing Committees of Parliament, and to any other organs directly responsible and accountable to Parliament as prescribed by law.  

The Parliament’s Standing Committees will focus on relevant sectors and direction of such related activities.  

More specifically, the Parliament appoints the Prime Minister and can remove them from office, removal requires an absolute majority in favour and Parliament must then appoint a replacement within 30-days or face being dissolved for fresh elections.  

The Prime Minister can also submit a draft resolution requesting a vote of confidence on issues of state budget and policy, which must be discussed after 3-days and adopted within 10-days by a majority. If it is rejected then the Prime Minister is considered dismissed. Again Parliament has 30-days to appoint an new Prime Minister.  

Changes to the constitution mean that Parliament can no longer block appointments or dismissals made by the Prime Minister to the Cabinet (highest executive decision-making body of Government).  

The Parliament has the power to remove the President from office under applicable reasons. The Parliament also determines the financial and credit, official taxation and monetary policies of the State, the main directives for national economic and social development, approves the Government Program of Action, the State Budget, and their performance reports.  

The expenditure and deficiency of the State Budget cannot be increased after it has been submitted to Parliament by the Government.  

Powers to establish the borders of the State; determine the structure, composition and powers of the National Security Council of Mongolia; and approving or changing the administrative and territorial division of Mongolia as submitted by the Governing Cabinet are powers held by the Parliament.  

Parliament also determines the legal basis of the system, organisational structure and activities of the local self-governing and administrative organs.  

It also decides on issues of amnesty; ratifies or annuls international treaties, and establish or sever diplomatic relations with foreign States on suggestion of the Governing Cabinet. The Parliament can organise national referendums, verify their validity, and consider the question that gained the majority vote.  

Parliament has the power to declare war or consent to such in cases where sovereignty and independence of the State is threatened by armed actions of foreign states. Can also declare a State of Emergency or war in the whole or certain parts of the country under special circumstances stated in the Constitution (such as natural disasters, or unforeseen dangers threatening life, health, well-being and security of population, or state organs cannot function due to public disorder). Also approves or nullifies/ends State of War or Emergency submitted by Presidential decree.  

A State of War can be declared in relation to internal disorder in all or parts of the country due to it becoming an armed conflict or there is danger it could become an armed conflict, or if there is armed aggression or clear or present danger of such from outside.  

The Electoral System  

The latest amendment has made it so a presidential term lasts 6-years and the same person may only serve a single term and cannot be re-elected. When it comes to the election one candidate is nominated, either individually or collectively, each by political parties that have seats in Parliament.  

The nominated candidates will then go forth into a two-round election. If no candidates obtain an absolute majority of the popular vote in the first round, then a second round is held between the top two candidates with the highest votes. If in the second round neither candidate gets an absolute majority then a new presidential election is held, otherwise the person is elected President.  

Candidates for the presidency must be an indigenous citizen of Mongolia, who is at least 55-years-old and has been permanently residing in the country for at least 5-years prior to the election.  

The President cannot also be the Prime Minister, cannot be a member of Parliament or Governing Cabinet, cannot hold any other job or official position, that are not responsibilities determined by law.  

Parliamentary elections take place every 4-years (unless sooner dissolved) to elect its 76-members. Members are elected from single-seat constituencies using the first-past-the-post system, meaning candidates only require a simple majority to win.  

If extraordinary circumstances exist due to things like sudden calamities occurring in the whole or part of the country then the term can be extended beyond 4-years until such issues no longer exist.  

To be eligible for election to the parliament one must be a Mongolian citizen who is at least 25-years-old and qualified to vote.  

To vote in elections one must be a citizen of Mongolia who is at least 18-years-old. Voting is not mandatory.  

Sources 

My sources from this come from Mongolia’s Constitution of 1992 with amendments through to 2001 (constituteproject.org), but there was also a substantial amendment in 2019 not included in that pdf. But I have gathered information on these amendments and included and pointed them out in the post, many are in regards to the President’s and Prime Minister’s powers and term and the judicial system.  

Such I have not mentioned in the post until now also includes the President losing the power to nominate the head of the Anti-Corruption Agency, and losing the ability to nominate three members of the National Human Rights Commission.  

But of course, it is always possible I have missed some things and misinterpreted other things and so it is always recommended to perform further cross-research. I am no expert myself and just do this as a hobby.  

Amendments to the Constitution can be proposed by Parliament, the President, the Government, or by a petition submitted by the Constitutional Court. Amendments can be put to a public referendum but this is not mandatory, it is only done if supported by at least two-thirds of Parliament. Parliament adopts amendments via at least a three-quarters majority vote.  

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