The Republic of Ireland is a nation located on the island of Ireland in north-western Europe and it is bordered with the country of Northern Ireland which is a part of the United Kingdom, there have been numerous civil political and sectarian tensions, including violence and death, related to NI, including involvement of military forces of the UK government, with those who wish Northern Ireland to remain a part of the United Kingdom under the British Monarchy (loyalists/unionists) and those who wish Northern Ireland to reunite with the Republic of Ireland (Republicans). These tensions can still flare up from time to time.
The Republic of Ireland has coasts along the Atlantic Ocean, Celtic Sea, and the Irish Sea, the Irish Sea is accessed through the North Channel between Northern Ireland and Scotland or the St. George’s Channel between the Republic of Ireland and Wales, the island of Great Britain is across the Irish sea, which includes England, Scotland, and Wales all a part of the United Kingdom, also in the Irish sea is the Isle of Man which is a self-governing British crown dependency. The Republic of Ireland’s capital city is Dublin and it is found on the central-eastern coast along the Irish Sea.
The first evidence of human presence in Ireland possibly dates back to around 10,500-8000 BC, the Bronze Age in Ireland begun with the emergence of Gaelic Ireland in the 2nd Millenium BC and ended with the arrival of the Celtic La Tene peoples and culture. Celtic Polytheism was eventually replaced by Christianity from the 4th Century AD onwards. Viking raids and settlement took place from the late 8th Century AD onwards and caused much cultural interchange, and innovations in military and transport, and many towns were founded.
Viking penetration was mostly limited to the coasts and rivers and stopped being a threat to Gaelic culture after the Battle of Clontarf in 1014. An Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland took place in 1169 and led to partial conquest of the island and started more than eight centuries of English political and military involvement in Ireland. The Gaelic resurgence slowly rolled back the Norman gains although an area of Ireland known as The Pale remained under direct English rule.
After this the English Crown would not attempt to conquer Ireland until after the end of the Wars of the Roses in 1488. After this resources and manpower were opened up for expansionism from the 16th Century onwards, but Ireland proved difficult to conquer due to various factors such as its decentralized political organisation, martial traditions, hard terrain and climate, and lack of urban infrastructure. Attempts for the English Crown to assert its authority became slow and costly.
The English also attempted to impose Protestantism on the Catholic Irish population, which was strongly resisted by both Gaelic and Norman Irish peoples, these periods included various abuses by the English Crown against such peoples. Such policy led to rebellion by Silken Thomas Earl of Kildare in 1534 and beginning of Tudor conquest of Ireland that lasted until 1603. In 1541 Henry VIII declared himself King of Ireland during this time.
The Tudor conquest encountered numerous rebellions such as the 1st and 2nd Desmond Rebellions, and the Nine Years War. Crown policy included surrender and regrant which attempted to assimilate Gaelic clans into the English polity followed by Plantation where thousands of English and Scottish Protestant settlers came to Ireland to displace the Irish Normans (or Old English) and native Catholics (many of these settlers settled in Northern Ireland). The conquest ended in victory with the defeat of Gaelic Ireland after the Battle of Kinsale in 1601, leading to the collapse of their cultural system and Ireland coming under the British Empire.
During the 17th Century conflict between Protestant landholding minority and dispossessed Catholic majority became common place. During such religious wars Ireland would eventually become dominated by the Protestant Ascendancy following the Irish Confederate Wars and the Williamite War. Catholics and dissenting Protestants suffered under this domination from severe political and economic privatizations.
After a major uprising against British rule called the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the Irish Parliament was abolished and the Acts of Union 1800 made Ireland a part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain (making it the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland). Catholics did not receive full rights until 1829 under the Catholic Emancipation which was achieved by Daniel O’ Connell. The Great Famine struck Ireland in 1845 with mass disease and starvation with the proximate cause being a potato blight, during this period Ireland’s population dropped by 20-25% and many refugees fled the country, largely to America.
Attempts for Irish independence continued meanwhile, with Charles Steward Parnell’s Irish Parliamentary Party advocating for Home Rule from the 1880s onwards, this was achieved via the Home Rule Act 1914 but unfortunately it was suspended due to the outbreak of the 1st World War.
During the World War Irish Republican’s attempted to take advantage in 1916 by launching an armed insurrection against British Rule known as the Easter Rising, although it was suppressed by the British it served to turn public tide against the British due to execution of leaders by British authorities. Ultimately the Irish War of Independence, or the Anglo-Irish War, begun from 1919 and successfully led to Ireland seceding from the United Kingdom and establishing the Irish Free State in 1922, although the Anglo-Irish Treaty partitioned Ireland, keeping six northeastern counties (Northern Ireland) under British rule, which remains to this day, this is due to its population being more favourable to British rule (due to resettlement plantation policies).
The partition of Ireland was opposed by many and led to the outbreak of the Irish Civil War in where the provisional Irish government of the Irish Free State who supported the treaty defeated the Anti-treaty IRA forces who saw the partition of Ireland as a betrayal, the provisional government had backing and military support from the British. The Irish Free State was a British Dominion until it adopted its constitution in 1937 and then the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 made the Irish Free State into the Republic of Ireland in 1949, officially cementing its full independence.
Despite the victory of the then Irish Free State in the Irish Civil War, tensions between mostly Catholic Irish nationalists (who wanted all of Ireland united) and mostly Protestant Irish Unionists/loyalists (who supported the treaty and partition) persisted in Northern Ireland, these divisions eventually led to a period of violent unrest, atrocities and terrorist activities both in Ireland and Great Britain from all sides (including abuses by British authorities/military forces) this time was known as The Troubles in Northern Ireland from the late 1960s all the way until the late 1990s where the signing of the Good Friday Agreement led to calming of tensions, although such tensions still flare up from time to time, such as mild unrest, politically motivated violence and murders, and terrorist activities, although nowhere near to the levels seen during The Troubles. BREXIT has served to stoke new political tensions over Northern Ireland and a possible step further towards the reunification of Ireland, Northern Ireland had narrowly voted to remain within the EU, and loyalists/unionists disagree with the Northern Ireland Protocol (a part of the BREXIT Deal) which places a customs barrier down the Irish Sea, many see it as threatening to the Good Friday Agreement.
The Republic of Ireland is a member of the European Union and a founding member of the Council of Europe and the OECD. The largest religion is Christianity (Roman Catholic), the country’s official currency is the Euro which it officially adopted in 2002 (although it had been in circulation since 1999) which replaced the Punt or Irish Pound. The country’s official languages are Irish (1st) and English (2nd) and the population is over 4,968,740.
Government Type
The Republic of Ireland is a parliamentary representative democratic republic where the mostly ceremonial President is Head of State and the Taoiseach (proportionate to position of Prime Minister) is Head of Government. The Irish legislature, called the Oireachtas Eireann in full is a bicameral parliament made up of the Seanad which is the upper house and the Dail, which is the lower but primary house. Multiple parties are allowed.
The Executive Government
There is a President who is Head of State, the position is mostly ceremonial but does have some powers of significance. The President cannot leave the State during his term in office without consent of the Government.
Presidential Absence and Vacancy
During absence or temporary incapacity, or officially established permanent incapacity, death, resignation, removal from office, or failure to exercise or perform powers and functions of their office, or if the presidency becomes vacant then the powers of the President are exercised and performed by a specially constituted Commission until the President returns or until a new President is elected.
Such a Commission includes the Chief Justice, Chairman of the Dail (lower House), and Chairman of the Seanad (upper House).
Within the Commission the President of the Court of Appeals can substitute for the Chief Justice on vacancy or absence, and the respective deputies of the Chairmen can substitute for them in the Commission on their absence or vacancy.
The Commission can act by any two of their members and may act notwithstanding vacancy in their membership.
Presidential Powers and Duties
After parliamentary elections the Dail (lower house) will nominate a member (usually a majority party or coalition leader) to become Taoiseach who will then be appointed by the President.
The President summons and dissolves the Dail (lower house) on advice of the Taoiseach. The President at their absolute discretion can refuse to dissolve the Dail if the Taoiseach does not have majority support from the House.
After consultation with the Council of State (council that advises the President), the President can summon either or both Houses of the Irish Legislature for an extraordinary session on a matter of great import.
The President promulgates the legislation passed by the Irish Legislature. The President can send the bill to the Supreme Court to decide whether it is repugnant to the constitution or not. A majority of the Seanad and at least one-third of the Dail can address a joint petition to the President asking him not to sign a bill into law and consider a national referendum or to be ascertained by the will of the people for its adoption if the bill is considered to be of such national importance, the President will make a decision on this within 10-days of the petition and also after consulting with the Council of State.
If the above is granted by the President then either a national referendum will be held on the bill or the Dail will be dissolved for fresh elections and once formed will vote on the bill again.
The President is the Supreme Commander of the country’s Defense Forces which is regulated by law. All commissioned officers of the Defense Forces hold their commission from the President.
The President has the right of pardon and power to commute or remit punishment imposed by any court in the country exercising criminal jurisdiction. Such power of commutation or remission may also be conferred by law on other authorities.
After consultation with the Council of State the President may communicate with the Irish Legislature by message or address on any matter of national or public importance. Also, after consultation with the Council of State the President may address a message to the Nation at any such time and on any such matter. Any such message or address requires Government approval.
The President appoints the Judges of the Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, High Court, and other Courts. The process of appointment is determined and regulated by law. As it stands Judges are nominated by the Taoiseach and Cabinet and then appointed by the President. The Chief Justice is the President of the Supreme Court by default and as such is nominated and appointed the same as Judges.
Council of State
The Council of State exists to aid and counsel the President on all matters which the President may consult the Council related to exercise and performance of powers and functions.
Ex-officio members of the Council of State include the Taoiseach, the Tanaiste, the Chief Justice, the President of the Court of Appeal, the President of the High Court, the Chairman of the Dail, the Chairman of the Seanad, and the Attorney-General.
Other members include every person able annd willing to act as a member of the Council of State who shall have held the office of President, Taoiseach, or Chief Justice, or the office of President of the Executive Council of Saorstat Eireann (Irish Free State).
The President can also appoint up to seven other members at their discretion who will serve until the President leaves office (or until they resign, die, replaced by the President etc).
Taoiseach and Government
The Taoiseach is the Head of Government in the Republic of Ireland equivalent to the position of Prime Minister and is stated as the position of Prime Minister in the constitution as well. The Taoiseach is nominated by the members of the Dail (lower house of Parliament) after elections, usually from largest party or coalition, they are then appointed by the President.
The Taoiseach nominates a member of Government to be their deputy (Tanaiste) usually a significant member of their party or if a coalition the leader of the second largest party or grouping in that coalition. The deputy will take over from the Taoiseach if they die or become permanently incapacitated until a new one is appointed or they will take over during temporary absence or incapacity until the Taoiseach returns.
The Taoiseach nominates members of Government who are approved by the Dail (lower house) and then appointed by the President. On advice of the Taoiseach the President accepts the resignation or terminates a member of Government. There can be no less than seven members of Government and no more than fifteen.
Members of Government and the Taoiseach collectively make up the Government Cabinet, the collective administrative and decision-making body of Government.
The Taoiseach, Tanaiste, and member of Government in charge of the Department of Finance must be from the Dail, other members of Government can be from Dail or Seanad (upper house) but no more than two members can be from the Seanad.
Members of Government have the right to attend sessions of both Houses of Parliament and to be heard.
The Taoiseach and his/her Government are responsible to the Dail (lower house of parliament) and must keep their confidence to remain in power. The Government is collectively responsible for the Departments of State administered by members of Government.
If the Taoiseach loses confidence, then they must resign or they can ask the President to dissolve the Dail for early elections and if the Taoiseach manages to secure a new majority in the next Dail then they can remain in power.
It is the duty of the Taoiseach to keep the President generally informed on matters of domestic and international policy.
The Government is in charge of preparing the Estimates of receipts and Estimates of expenditure (annual Budget) to the Dail for its consideration.
The Government is in charge of international relations and foreign affairs. Every international agreement must be laid before the Dail. The State cannot be bound by any international agreement involving charge on public funds unless terms of agreement have been approved by the Dail.
There is an Attorney-General who is the Government’s legal adviser, they are not a member of Government but is appointed by the President on recommendation of the Taoiseach.
Presidential Removal
The President can be impeached for stated misbehavior. A charge against the President can be proffered by either House of the Irish Legislature and such a motion must be signed by at least 30-members of that House. When a charge is put forward and adopted by at least a two-thirds majority the other House will be in-charge of investigating the charge against the President, the President has the right to appear and be represented at these investigations.
After the investigation the House that investigated will vote whether to remove the President from office, such a vote to remove the President requires a two-thirds majority.
Emergency Provisions
The Government can deem a piece of legislation as urgent and immediately necessary for preservation of public peace and security, or by existence of public emergency, domestic or international, the time for consideration of a bill by the Seanad can be abridged as specified by resolution passed by the Dail.
In this case a bill rejected by the Seanad or passed by Seanad but with amendments the Dail disagree with or bill neither passed nor rejected by Seanad. Or in case of Money bills returned by Seanad with recommendation that Dail disagrees with or if not returned by the Seanad at all…
Shall be deemed to have been passed by both Houses within period specified in resolution and will remain in force for 90-days and can be extended further by agreed resolutions of both Houses.
The Legislative Government
The Irish Legislature, called the Oireachtas Eireann, is a bicameral parliament made up of the upper house called the Seanad Eireann (the Senate), and the lower but primary house called the Dail Eireann (House of Representatives). The Dail is considered primary as it determines the appointment of the Taoiseach (Head of Government) after that House has been elected, and it determines thereafter the confidence within the Taoiseach and as such can lead to his/her removal and replacement. The Dail also provides the main oversight of actions and activities of the executive government.
Both Houses have powers to introduce legislation, debate it, introduce and adopt amendments, resolutions, and pass legislation, legislation passed from the house it was introduced in will then be introduced to the other house for consideration, then if passed by that house it will go on to the President to be promulgated.
Both Houses elect a Chairman and their deputies and prescribe their powers and duties, which involve keeping order within the houses and enforcement of internal rules and decision making on parliamentary agenda within the sessions of the Houses. The Chairman or a presiding member cannot vote within sessions, but does hold a casting vote if there are ties.
Other Powers and limitations
Either House can impeach the President on a charge adopted via a two-thirds majority and cause the other House to investigate or set-up an investigation into the charge and then decide removal of the President via two-thirds majority.
The Irish Legislation can provide for the establishment and recognition of functional or vocational councils that represent branches of the social and economic life of the people. Such laws determine rights, powers and duties, and relation to the Irish Legislature and Government.
The constitution prevents the Irish legislature from enacting a law that provide imposition of a death penalty.
Right to raise and maintain military and armed forces is vested exclusively in the Irish Legislature.
War cannot be declared without consent of the Dail.
Both Houses can introduce resolutions for removal of Judges from office for stated misbehavior, such is notified to the President by the Taoiseach, the President will remove them from office.
Dail Eireann (Lower Primary House)
The Lower house currently has 160 members which can be fixed by law, but total number of members cannot be fixed at less than one member per 30k population, or more than one member per 20k population and no constituencies can have less than three elected members. Number of members within each constituency is made as equally balanced as possible for fair representation for each constituency.
The lower house considers the Estimates of receipts and Estimates of expenditure as soon as possible when presented. The Financial Resolutions (yearly budget) are considered and enacted by this House. The House cannot pass any vote or resolution, or enact a law, for appropriation of revenue or other public money unless purpose of appropriation has been recommended to the House by message from the Government signed by the Taoiseach.
This House has the job of nominating the Comptroller and Auditor-General who are appointed by the President.
Seanad Eireann (Upper House)
The Upper house currently has a fixed 60 members, their mode of election is rather convoluted and explained under the electoral section below.
The purpose of this house is basically to provide oversight on legislation passed by the Dail, just as the Dail can do on legislation introduced and passed by this house, but the Seanad can be more easily bypassed by the Dail. The Seanad cannot introduce money bills and cannot amend money bills passed by the Dail, they can only provide recommendations on such. The Seanad can amend bills passed by the Dail, just as the Dail can do for bills passed by the Seanad, in such cases they are sent back to the respective houses for reconsideration.
If Money bills are not returned to the Dail within 21-days they are considered automatically passed. The Seanad does have the power to pass a resolution challenging whether a Money bill passed on to it is actually constitutionally a Money bill.
In such a case the President, after consultation with the Council of State, may decide to accede to the request and appoint a Committee of Privileges to make a decision on whether the bill is a Money bill or not. This Committee consists of an equal number of members from both Houses and a Chairman who is a Judge of the Supreme Court. Such appointments are made at the consultation of the Council of State. The Chairman has a casting vote if there is a tie. The decision by the Committee on whether the bill is a money bill or not is final.
Alternatively, the President may decide not to accede to the resolution of the Seanad and no Committee will be appointed, and as such the bill will still be considered a Money bill.
On bills that are rejected by the Seanad or are given amendments that the Dail disagree with or bills that are left with no action in the Seanad within set period (90 days by default), then the Dail can resolve within 180 days after expiration of stated period be deemed to have been passed by both Houses (effectively overruled the Seanad).
The above also applies to bills which were initiated in and passed by the Seanad but that were amended by the Dail, which then under the Constitution deems the bill as having been initiated in the Dail.
The Electoral System
Presidential Elections take place every 7-years and the President is directly elected by the people using a system of proportional representation via the single transferable vote, where a candidate who is knocked out of the race during the counting process (due to not reaching set thresholds to remain in the race) will have the votes put towards them transferred to another candidate still in the race based on personal preferences of the voters, this goes on until a single winner is left with the most votes meeting the required thresholds and will thus win the election.
One person can hold office for the maximum of two terms (14-years). Eligible candidates must be at least 35-years old. Candidates must be nominated by at least 20-members of the Irish legislature or by Councils of at least four administrative counties including county boroughs. No Council or person can nominate more than one candidate in the same election. Former and retiring Presidents do not require nomination to run for a 2nd term and can do it off their own accord.
The President cannot be a member of the Irish Legislature, a member of the Legislature who is elected President must vacate their seat.
Elections for the Dail Eireann (lower house) take place every 5 years and elect members from multi-seat constituencies using a proportional representation system via the single transferable vote, which is already explained above. This system means power-sharing coalitions are common.
Candidates for the Dail Eireann must be citizens who are at least 21-years-old and who does not have a disqualifying disability or incapacity.
Elections for the Seanad Eireann (upper house) take place not more than 90-days following the dissolution of the Dail Eireann (lower house). 11 of the 60 members are nominated by the Taoiseach (after they have been appointed to their position by the President), the Taoiseach must obtain prior consent from the nominees. The other members are elected by Universities and constituted panels of candidates.
Three members are elected by the National University of Ireland, and another three members are elected by the University of Dublin. The final 43 are elected by the constituted panels.
Provision can be made by law for the election, by franchise and in manner provided by law, by Universities mentioned above or any other institutions of higher education in the State. Member or members may be elected via institutions grouped together or by a single institution.
Members are elected via proportional representation using the single transferable vote which is explained above.
For members elected from panels of candidates, give panels are formed in a manner provided by law containing respectively names of persons having knowledge and practical experience of interests and services.
- The above includes National Language, Culture, Literature, Art, Education and such professional interests as may be defined by law for this panel.
- A panel for Agriculture and allied interests, and Fisheries.
- A panel for Labour, organised or unorganised.
- A panel for Industry and Commerce, including banking, finance, accountancy, engineering, and architecture.
- A panel for Public administration and social services, including voluntary social activities.
Each panel can elect no more than 11 members and no less than 5 members to the Seanad.
Candidates for the Seanad Eireann must also be citizens who are at least 21-years-old and who does not have a disqualifying disability or incapacity.
To vote in elections one must be a citizen of the Republic of Ireland who is at least 18-years-old. Voting is not mandatory.
Sources
The sources for this post come from the Republic of Ireland’s 1937 constitution with amendments through to 2019 and so should be as up to date as possible but there is a chance, I missed things and misinterpreted things and of course the constitution can be amended and this post may eventually become outdated and so it is recommended to perform cross-research if using this in a serious capacity.
Amendments to the constitution are first initiated in the Dail (lower house) and require majority approval in both Houses of Parliament, then adoption requires majority approval in a national referendum and then promulgation by the President.
Next up will be the government system of Israel.
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