Jordan is a small country located in the Middle East, namely in a historical area known as the Levant in Western Asia and is bordered with Iraq, Syria, Israel and the West Bank (one of the Palestine Territories), and Saudi Arabia, Jordan also has access to the ocean via a small coast on the Gulf of Aqaba. The capital city Amman is located in the north-west of the country closest to the border with Israel and the West Bank. Jordan also has a coast along the landlocked Dead Sea. You may have most recently heard of Jordan through the news due to the foiling of an apparent coup plot which included the country’s former Crown Prince Hassan bin Talal. But despite the country being located in a generally unstable region, including being bordered with Syria, Jordan itself is generally stable.
The area Jordan exists in is ancient and humans have been living there since the Paleolithic Era, at the end of the Bronze Age three Kingdoms emerged in the area called Ammon, Moab, and Edom, they benefited from trade with their neighbors as the Assyrian Empire gained increasing control over the Levant. The Babylonians took over from 627 BC, and after some initial support the Kingdoms rebelled against them, the Kingdoms would become vassals under the Persian and Hellenic Empires.
Following the death of Alexander the Great his empire was partitioned and the area of Jordon, then known as Transjordan became disputed between the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Seleucid Empire. The Nabataeans exploited both of these powers to establish their own independent Kingdom in the area in 169 BC, the Kingdom grew very wealthy through controlling of the areas trade, and established much infrastructure and architecture. By 63 BC much of the Levant was conquered by the Romans who would from then rule over the area for four centuries, Nabataea was annexed without resistance in 106 AD.
The Empire split in 324 AD and the area came under the Eastern Roman Empire, later known as the Byzantine Empire, which would eventually convert to Christianity, during this time Transjorden went through a period of prosperity. From time to time the Sassanian Empire, rivals to the Byzantines, would control parts of Transjordan. By 636 AD the area would be conquered by Muslims, first the Rashidun Caliphate, followed by the Ummayads, and then the Abbasids and finally the Fatimid Caliphate before the area was taken by the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem.
The Crusaders would eventually lose to Saladin who would establish the Ayyubid Dynasty and Transjordan would become an important pilgrim route for Muslims travelling to Mecca. The Mamluk Sultanate would then take over from 1260 AD and managed to hold off the Mongols from taking the area. From 1516 the Mamluks would be conquered by the Ottoman Caliphate, bringing the area under the Ottoman Empire. There was relative prosperity for a time but the Ottoman’s did not see Transjordan with much importance, the area went into a state of anarchy lasting until the 19th Century, Wahahbi forces took over the area from 1803 to 1812, but were rooted out by Ibrahim Pasha, son of Egypt Eyalet’s Governor in 1818.
Pasha would later turn on the Ottomans in 1833 and took rule of the Levant, he established oppressive polices that led to the Peasants’ Revolt in Palestine in 1834 but which was defeated, the Ottomans would later take back control of the area in 1841. The Ottomans conscription and heavy taxation policies led to a number of revolts but these were brutally suppressed. But during World War 1 the 1916 Arab Revolt would begin due to long-term resentment of Ottoman authorities and growth of Arab nationalism, the revolt was led by members of the Hashemite family, gained support of tribes in the area and also support from Britain and France.
The collapse of the Ottoman Empire led to the short-lived Arab Kingdom of Syria which included Transjordan. The Arab Kingdom of Syria clashed with League of Nations mandates over the partition of the Ottoman Empire, the Mandate for Syria and Lebanon and the Mandate for Palestine, the Franco-Syrian War would see this new Kingdom defeated and occupied by the French, although the north was not occupied which left Transjordan with no leadership or government for a time. Aspirations of the Arabs continued to be ignored by Western powers, namely due to the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement which divided the region into British and French spheres of influence, and the Balfour Declaration promising Palestine to the Jews.
The Hashemites and Arabs felt betrayed by this as the British had originally seemed willing to allow a unified Arab state ruled by the Hashemites. The British would eventually accept a Hashemite Kingdom over Transjordan leading to the creation of the Emirate of Transjordan in 1921, which came under British Protectorate, who helped the Kingdom fight off revolts and rebellions. The state would later gain full independence via the Treaty of London on 25th May 1946 and became the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan, later renamed to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in 1949.
Tensions remained between Arab States including Jordan against Israel, and in the Arab-Israeli War Jordan captured and annexed the West Bank but then lost it to Israel in the 1967 Six-Day-War and would fully renounce its claim to that territory in 1988 and became the second Arab state to sign a peace treaty with Israel in 1994. Jordan is a founding member of the Arab League and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.
Jordan’s official language is Arabic and the largest religion is Sunni Islam, with Islam being the country’s official religion. The country’s currency is the Jordanian dinar and its population is over 10,284,150.
Government Type
Jordan is a Parliamentary Constitutional Monarchy where a ruling Monarch (a King) is Head of State and a Prime Minister is Head of Government. The Monarchy maintains a degree of power but is somewhat ceremonial, with many powers checked by the Prime Minister and relevant Ministers, although as of a 2016 amendment to the constitution, many of the King’s powers no longer require a countersignature making the position less ceremonial.
Jordan’s parliamentary system is a bicameral one consisting of the House of Representatives which is the lower but primary chamber and the Senate which is the upper chamber. Multiple parties are allowed, despite this the majority of members in Parliament are Independents, and it is noted that most of these are tribal figures and business-people loyal to the monarchy, the situation also persists despite a change to a proportional system. Turnout to elections are very poor.
The Monarchy and Executive Government
Jordan has a monarchy; the ruling family are the Hashemites or House of Hashim and the monarchy is hereditary. The ruling Monarch is the Head of State of Jordan. The ruling monarch is the King by default and he exercises the Executive Power through Ministers in accordance with provisions of the Constitution. The King is immune from every liability and responsibility.
The monarchy is hereditary to the dynasty of King Abdullah Bin Al-Hussein in a direct line through the male heirs, the throne passes on when the King dies. The heir is the eldest son of the King, and then to the eldest son of that eldest son, and then in a linear succession in a similar process thereafter. If the eldest son dies before he becomes King, then his eldest son will receive the throne even if the deceased had brothers. The King may choose one of his brothers as heir apparent.
If a person entitled to the throne does not have a male heir, then the throne passes on to their eldest brother, and if no brother then it goes to the eldest son of his eldest brother, if the eldest brother has no son, then it goes to the eldest son of his other brothers in order of seniority of age. If brothers and nephews are absent, then the throne passes down to uncles and descendants, in the same order.
If the last King dies without any heirs via what is described above, then the throne will be given to a person chosen by the country’s Parliament from amongst the descendants of the founder of the Arab Renaissance, the late King Hussein Bin Ali. The person to receive the throne must be Moslem, mentally sound, born by a legitimate wife, and of Moslem parents. They cannot also have been excluded from succession by a Royal Decree due to unsuitability. Such a Decree cannot exclude descendants of said person and must be countersigned by the Prime Minister and at least four other Ministers, including the Ministers for the Interior and Justice.
To rule as King, one must be at least 18-years-old, otherwise until then the powers of the King are exercised by a Regent or Council of Regency who shall have been appointed by a Royal Decree by the reigning King. If the King died without making such appointments, then they shall be appointed by the Council of Ministers instead.
If the King is too ill to exercise their powers, then the powers are exercised by a Viceregent or Council of Viceregency appointed by a Royal Decree. If the King is too unwell to make such appointments, then the appointments are made by the Council of Ministers. The King must also appoint a Viceregent or Council of Viceregency if he is leaving the country, if such an absence extends beyond four months, then the Parliament shall be summoned if not already in session to consider the matter.
Regents and Viceregents, and members of the Council of Regency or Viceregency must be at least 30-years-old or if a relative of the King at least 18-years-old, if the Regent, Viceregent, or any members die or become incapable of performing functions then the Council of Ministers will appoint replacements.
If it becomes impossible for the King to rule due to mental illness, then the Council of Ministers on confirmation of such, shall immediately convene the country’s Parliament. If mental illness is definitive, the Parliament decides on terminating his rule, where then the Throne is passed on to the next heir.
Duties of the King
The King ratifies laws passed by the country’s Parliament, promulgates them and orders the enactment of regulations necessary for their implementation.
The King is the Supreme Commander of the country’s armed forces. The King declares war, makes peace, and concludes treaties and agreements. Treaties and agreements that entail any expenditures to the treasury of the State or affect public or private rights of Jordanians will not be valid unless approved by the Parliament. The King creates, confers, and withdraws civil and military ranks, medals, and other honourific titles, this authority can be delegated by the King to another person by a special law.
The King orders holding of elections for the House of Representatives (lower chamber of Parliament) in accordance with provisions of law.
The King convenes/summons the Parliament, inaugurates, adjourns, and prorogues it in accordance with provisions of the Constitution. If the King fails to summon the Parliament as guided by the Constitution, then the Parliament shall meet of its own motion as if it were summoned. Adjournments made by Royal Decree are limited to three times and cannot exceed two months.
The King may summon the Parliament for an extraordinary session for purpose of deciding on specific matters specified in the Royal Decree, the King shall also summon an extraordinary session whenb requested by an absolute majority of the members of the House of Representatives.
The King may dissolve the House of Representatives for early elections. If elections do not take place within four months, then the House will immediately reconvene as if the dissolution did not take place. If a House is dissolved for any reason, then the new House may not be dissolved for the same reason. The Government must also resign following dissolution and the Head of Government may not be designated to form the Government that follows.
The King may dissolve the Senate (upper chamber of Parliament) or relieve one of its members of the membership.
The King appoints the Prime Minister based on the largest party or grouping in the House of Representatives following elections. The King also appoints, dismisses and accepts the resignations of Ministers on the recommendation of the Prime Minister.
The King appoints members of the Senate and appoints the Speaker of the Senate from amongst them and accepts their resignation.
The King has the right to make special pardons or remit sentences, but general pardons are determined by a special law. The King ratifies sentences of death which are placed before him by the Council of Ministers along with their opinion.
The Kings powers are exercised via a Royal Decree which must be countersigned by the Prime Minister and the Minister or Ministers concerned, along with the King’s concurring signature, to have effect. NOTE: As of 2016 an amendment made it so a number of the King’s powers no longer require a countersignature to have effect, this includes…
Appointment of Crown Prince, Regent, Senate Speaker/President and members of Senate, Chairman and members of Constitutional Court, Chief Justice, commander of the Army, and heads of Intelligence and the Gendarmerie.
The King appoints the members of the Constitutional Court who serve 6-year non-renewable terms. Members chosen must be Jordanian and not hold another nationality; at least 50-years-old; be someone who has served as judges in the Court of Cassation and the High Court of Justice, or of the professors of law in universities who hold the rank of professor; or of the lawyers who spent at least 15-years in the practice of law; and of the specialists to whom the conditions of membership in the Senate apply.
The King also appoints and dismisses Judges of the Civil and Sharia Courts in accordance with provisions of the law, appointment of civil judges also involves a Judicial Council which is established by a law.
Prime Minister and Council of Ministers
The Prime Minister is the Head of Government. The Prime Minister heads the Council of Ministers which is the highest executive decision-making body of the Government, it includes a number of Ministers pursuant to the need and public interest. Ministers must be a Jordanian.
The Council of Ministers undertakes the responsibility of administering all affairs of the State, internal and external, with exception of affairs that were or may be entrusted in accordance with the Constitution or any law to any other person or body.
Authorities of the Prime Minister, Ministers, and Council of Ministers, are defined by regulations established by the Council of Ministers and ratified by the King.
Ministers may be entrusted with the functions of one or more ministries with competence over its actions, affairs, regulations and polices. The Prime Minister overlooks these ministries and any matters not falling within the competence of the Minister/s concerned.
Decisions of the Council of Ministers are signed by the Prime Minister and Ministers, and are submitted to the King for ratification in cases required under the Constitution or any law or regulation. Such decisions are implemented by the Prime Minister and Ministers, each within their competence.
If the Prime Minister is dismissed or resigns, then all Ministers are considered to have collectively resigned. If the Prime Minister dies then a Deputy Prime Minister or most senior Minister will take over until a new Government is formed.
The Prime Minister and Ministers have the right to be heard in either the House of Representatives or the Senate even if they are not members of said chambers.
The Prime Minister and Ministers are jointly responsible before the House of Representatives for public policy of the State; each Minister is also responsible before the House of Representatives for the functions of their Ministry. They must maintain confidence of the House of Representatives to remain in power.
A vote of confidence can either be started at the request of the Prime Minister or by a request signed by at least 10-members of the House of Representatives, a vote of confidence can be held on a single Minister or the entire Council of Ministers. Such a vote of confidence can be postponed one time for up to 10-days if requested for by the Minister concerned or Council of Ministers and during this time the House of Representatives cannot be dissolved.
Also, when a Council of Ministers is first formed it must introduce a ministerial statement to the House of Representatives for a confidence vote, which requires an absolute majority of the House to vote confidence within the Council of Ministers.
Loss of confidence of a Minister means they should resign and loss of confidence in the Council of Ministers means they should all resign.
Emergency Provisions
If Martial Law is declared it is possible for the media, such as newspapers, publications, books and information and communication media to be subject to limited censorship for reasons of public safety and national defense.
During times that the House of Representatives is dissolved and along with approval from the King, the Council of Ministers will have the right to issue provisional laws covering general disasters, state of war and emergencies, and needs for necessary and urgent expenditures which cannot be postponed.
Such provisional laws must eventually be placed before the Parliament in its first sitting who may approve, amend, or reject such laws. The laws will also become void if no action is taken on them by the House when it is sitting within the allotted period.
The Legislative Government
The Parliament of Jordan is a bicameral one made up of the House of Representatives which is the lower and primary chamber and which is elected by the people, and the upper house which is the Senate and is appointed by the King. The main purpose of the parliament is to scrutinize introduced legislation, debate it, possibly amend it, and either pass or reject such legislation. The House of Representatives also provides oversight of the Prime Minister, Ministers, and Council of Ministers and can withdraw confidence from them. The annual Budget also goes through Parliament.
Both chambers make and decide on their own bylaws and they are ratified by the King.
Joint-sittings of both Houses can be requested by the Prime Minister or happen as guided by the constitution. The Speaker/President of the Senate will be the Speaker/President of the Joint-sitting.
The Prime Minister submits the draft of every law first to the House of Representatives and then go on to the Senate if passed by the House of Representatives. Laws must pass both chambers and then be promulgated by the King to become law. If a law is rejected twice by either House but accepted by the other then there shall be a joint-sitting presided over by the Speaker/President of the Senate to try and come to a compromise or agreement, in this case a two-thirds majority is required for the law to pass, if the law is rejected again in the same way, then it cannot be placed before the House again in the same session.
10 or more members of either the House or Senate may propose laws, such proposals are referred to the committees concerned for an opinion, if the proposals are accepted then the proposals are referred to the Government to put it into the form of a draft law, to be submitted to the House.
If legislation is passed by both Houses it goes to the King for ratification but he may, within six-months, choose to return it to the House for reconsideration along with a statement for the reasons why, if both Houses pass the law again along with at least a two-thirds majority then the law must be ratified by the King, if the King fails to promulgate/ratify a law within allotted time period it shall automatically be considered ratified/promulgated.
Members of the Senate and House may address questions and interpellations to the Ministers concerning any of the public matters, in accordance with bylaws.
House of Representatives
The lower and primary house consists currently of 130-members and which is not fixed by the constitution and can be changed via an electoral law. The members are elected by the people which is explained under the Electoral System section below.
The Speaker of the House is elected by the members from among themselves for a 2-year term and who may be re-elected. The Speaker maintains orderly conduct and debate, ensures House rules are abided, and represents the House in an impartial manner. Speaker gives a vote of preponderance in any ties.
The Senate
The upper house consists of a number of members that cannot exceed one-half of the number of the House of Representatives, as it stands the Senate currently has 65 members, to see how they are appointed and the conditions they must meet, refer to the Electoral System section below.
The Senate has a Speaker (or President, although the constitution does call them Speaker) who serves for 2-years and may be reappointed. The Speaker keeps orderly conduct and debate and ensures Senate rules are abided by. Also represents the Senate in an impartial manner. Speaker gives a vote of preponderance in any ties.
The Electoral System
To be a member of either the Senate or House of Representatives a number of conditions must be met, such must be Jordanians; cannot be adjudged bankrupt without being legally discharged; if a person has been interdicted, they cannot be a member unless such interdiction has been removed; cannot have been sentenced to imprisonment for period exceeding one-year for a non-political crime unless pardoned; cannot be insane or an imbecile; and cannot be a relative of the King in the degree of consanguinity, prescribed by a special law.
Furthermore, for the Senate there are also further conditions required to be a member, they must be at least 40-years-old, and be one of the following classes: present or former Prime Minister or minister; formerly held offices of either ambassador, ministers plenipotentiary, speakers of the House of Representatives, president or judges of the Court of Cassation and of the Civil and Sharia Courts of Appeal; retired military officers of the rank Lt. General and above; former representatives who were elected at least twice; and other similar personalities who enjoy the confidence of the people in the view of their work and services to the Nation and the country.
For the House of Representatives members must be at least 30-years-old.
For the Senate it is reappointed every 4-years and its members may be reappointed. The appointments are made by the King.
Parliamentary elections for the House of Representatives take place every 4-years unless the election has been delayed via a Royal Decree (extension of the Houses term cannot go beyond 2-years and such an extension is subject to the constitution and law). 115 of the 130 Members are elected from multiseat constituencies using an open-list proportional representation system where seats are guaranteed via reaching a certain quota of the vote, of these seats 9-seats are reserved for Christians, and 3-seats reserved for Chechens and Circassians. 15 further seats are also reserved and allocated to leading women candidates who failed to win a constituency seat.
An independent commission exists, created by a law, to supervise the parliamentary electoral process and administer it at all stages, and supervise any other elections decided by the Council of Ministers. The judiciary has competence over determining legitimacy on any challenges against an electoral result in the House of Representatives.
Sources
The sources for this post come from Jordan’s 1952 constitution with amendments through to 2016 (constituteproject.org) and so should be as up to date as possible but as always there is the chance, I missed things or misinterpreted other things and the constitution can be amended and so this post may eventually become outdated and so cross-research is encouraged if using this seriously.
Amendments to the constitution require at least a two-thirds majority in both Houses of Parliament and ratification by the King to be fully adopted.
Next up will be the government system of Kazakhstan.
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